Tonnel - No 25 - 2007

Magazine Overview

This document is the cover and table of contents for "Tunnel" (ТОННЕЛЬ), Issue No. 25, published in 2007. It is an electronic version of a collection of scientific works, issued by the Academy of Informational and Applied Ufology and the International Ufological Association. The issue is dedicated to the scientific legacy of the Soviet astronomer Nikolai Alexandrovich Kozyrev (1908–1983).

Biography of N.A. Kozyrev

Page 2 provides a brief biography of N.A. Kozyrev. Born in St. Petersburg in 1928, he graduated from Leningrad University. He worked at the Leningrad Institute of Railway Engineers and the Pedagogical Institute named after M.N. Pokrovsky, and from 1931, at the Pulkovo Observatory. In November 1936, he was arrested along with other Pulkovo Observatory staff and sentenced in May 1937 to 10 years of imprisonment with disenfranchisement and confiscation of property. He was the only Pulkovo astronomer to survive. In December 1946, he was conditionally released early due to the intercession of G.A. Shain. His work was highly praised by prominent scientists such as Academician G.A. Shain, V.A. Ambartsumyan, P.P. Parenago, B.A. Vorontsov-Velyaminov, and N.N. Pavlov.

Main Scientific Works of N.A. Kozyrev

Kozyrev's primary scientific contributions focused on stellar physics, and the study of planets and the Moon. Key works include:

• 1934: Developed a theory of extended atmospheres and described their radiation, which was later generalized by S. Chandrasekhar into the Kozyrev-Chandrasekhar theory.
• Developed a theory of sunspots, proposing that a sunspot is in radiative equilibrium with the photosphere.
• 1953: Experimentally discovered emission bands in the dark part of Venus's disk, attributing some to molecular nitrogen.
• 1958: Obtained spectrograms of the lunar crater Alphonsus, indicating gas emission and volcanic activity on the Moon.
• 1963: Discovered hydrogen in Mercury's atmosphere.
• Concluded that Jupiter's core has a very high temperature (up to 200,000).
• Proposed a unique theory of stellar structure based on the assumption of a pure hydrogen composition in stellar interiors, suggesting that stellar energy release cannot be explained by thermonuclear reactions, contrary to prevailing views.
• Investigated the hypothesis of time's influence on matter and the energy of celestial bodies using experimental and theoretical methods.

In 1970, he was awarded the Gold Medal of the International Astronautical Academy.

Table of Contents

The table of contents lists several articles and authors, indicating the scope of the issue:

• Kozyrev N.A. On the influence of time on matter.
• Kozyrev N.A. Astronomical observations using the physical properties of time.
• Gordeev G. Is time energy?
• Nikitin V. The River of the Universe.
• Barashenkov V. These strange experiments of Kozyrev.
• Valentinov A. The last experiment of Professor Kozyrev.
• Karavaikin A. Stages of development of modern information theory.

Internet Resources

Pages 3 and 4 provide extensive lists of internet links related to N.A. Kozyrev, including official websites, bibliographies, biographical data, and articles by and about him, as well as works that utilize his ideas. These links offer further resources for exploring his research.

Article: On the Influence of Time on Matter (N.A. Kozyrev)

Page 6 begins an article by N.A. Kozyrev titled "On the Influence of Time on Matter." He posits that all physical systems, including matter, lose their initial organization and age over time, moving towards a more probable state as described by the second law of thermodynamics. This process of increasing disorder is linked to the direction of time, where causes precede effects. Kozyrev suggests that time, when integrated with three-dimensional space to form a four-dimensional manifold, reveals future events that already exist. He critiques this deterministic view, proposing that time might have physical properties beyond mere geometry, similar to force fields. This active role of time allows it to influence physical systems and matter, making it an active participant in the universe. He introduces the concept of 'time density,' suggesting that higher time density can organize systems and reduce entropy, thus counteracting the usual trend of development. This active property of time can, therefore, introduce a vital element into the universe, preventing its thermal death.

On page 7, Kozyrev elaborates that changes in matter's state can occur not only over time but also due to time's active influence. He posits that interactions with natural processes alter time's active properties, which in turn affect matter. Matter can act as a detector for changes in time density, which varies spatially. Some processes weaken time density, while others strengthen it. He describes how increased time density weakens with distance and is shielded by matter, while decreased time density is drawn from the surroundings. Experiments showed that processes increasing entropy emit time, leading to increased order in nearby matter. This implies time carries information that can be transferred. He suggests that time's physical properties can reduce entropy and oppose the usual course of events.

Kozyrev discusses how various properties of matter can be altered by time. For research purposes, he focuses on properties that can be easily and accurately measured, such as the electrical conductivity of a resistor. He describes experiments where processes like evaporating a volatile liquid (increasing time density) or cooling a heated body (decreasing time density) caused changes in a resistor's conductivity. These changes were observed to be opposite in sign, consistent with changes in temperature, but Kozyrev argues they are primarily due to time's influence. He notes that these effects were observed even when the resistor was shielded from direct temperature changes.

On page 8, Kozyrev details experiments using a Beckman thermometer and a resistor as detectors. He describes an experiment where acetone evaporation near a resistor caused changes in its conductivity. Initial attempts to account for temperature changes using a Beckman thermometer showed a slight cooling effect, but the observed conductivity changes were too large to be solely attributed to temperature. Further experiments with improved insulation confirmed that the thermometer was reacting to time emission during acetone evaporation, causing mercury compression. He also describes experiments where dissolving sugar in water (emitting time) caused mercury levels to decrease, while compressing a spring (absorbing time) caused them to increase. The slow return of mercury to its initial state after these processes was also noted. The relative volume and density changes of mercury were found to be of the same order as the changes in the resistor's electrical conductivity.

Page 9 continues the discussion of experiments. Kozyrev suggests that the Beckman thermometer should also react to astronomical phenomena. He describes observations during a partial lunar eclipse on March 13-14, 1979, using a Beckman thermometer and a mechanical device (a disk suspended by a quartz thread). The disk rotated slightly when acetone evaporated above its suspension point, with mirror reflection causing rotation in the opposite direction. The interpretation of this device's function was unclear, but it was thought to be related to time carrying and transmitting a force pair that organizes matter. During the eclipse, the disk and thermometer were in a stable environment. The graphs showed changes in the disk's position and thermometer readings after the moon's surface began to warm up after being in Earth's shadow. The decrease in mercury height and disk rotation indicated time emission during the heating of the lunar surface. He concludes that a mercury thermometer is not suitable for precise temperature measurements, suggesting a gas thermometer would be more reliable as gas lacks the structure to be reorganized by time density. Therefore, gas does not absorb time, which was confirmed by astronomical observations through Earth's atmosphere.

Page 10 discusses further experiments. Kozyrev suggests that other properties of matter, such as electrical conductivity, should also change during lunar eclipses. He describes observations made with a telescope-reflector at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory during a lunar eclipse on May 13, 1976. The galvanometer readings showed an increase in resistance (corresponding to time emission) as the moon emerged from Earth's shadow. However, the readings later decreased due to a shift in the projected area of the moon onto the resistor. After restoring the correct position, the readings quickly increased and then slowly decreased as the lunar surface's heating rate diminished. The graph (Fig. 3) illustrates these changes in the resistor's electrical conductivity.

Kozyrev notes that increased time density during the latter half of a lunar eclipse can be observed near the terminator during the waxing phase of the moon. He explains that distant celestial bodies are observed primarily in their fully illuminated phase, facing the Sun. This explains why even small, non-active astronomical objects emit time. Observations with a 50-inch reflector at the Crimean Observatory detected time emission not only from moons of large planets but also from Saturn's rings, due to the heating of their sun-facing sides. He posits that time emission from many stars is likely caused by internal processes. Therefore, the Sun, with its energetic processes, likely emits time in addition to electromagnetic energy. Experiments with a thin screen blocking sunlight confirmed that the Sun significantly influences a resistor or other detector. During solar eclipses, when the Moon blocks the Sun, a loss of matter organization is expected, potentially affecting the elasticity of a torsion pendulum. This might explain observed phenomena.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The recurring theme throughout this issue is the exploration of Nikolai Kozyrev's unconventional theories on time as an active physical force. The editorial stance appears to be one of promoting and investigating Kozyrev's work, presenting his biography, scientific contributions, and experimental findings related to his hypotheses. The issue highlights the potential for time to influence physical phenomena, reduce entropy, and carry information, challenging conventional physics and offering a new perspective on the universe. The extensive list of internet resources suggests an effort to encourage further research and discussion on these topics.

This issue, titled "Астрономические наблюдения посредством физических свойств времени" (Astronomical Observations by Means of Physical Properties of Time), published in 1985 by the Main Astronomical Observatory of the USSR Academy of Sciences in Pulkovo, explores a novel approach to astronomical observation. It posits that celestial bodies can be studied not only through electromagnetic radiation but also by detecting changes in the physical properties of time caused by these bodies. The publication includes research by N.A. Kozyrev and collaborators, referencing previous work and presenting new experimental findings.

Time as a Physical Property

The central theme is the investigation of time as a physical entity with measurable properties. The authors argue that the study of stellar energy, based on astronomical observations, leads to the conclusion that stars are not self-contained energy sources but must draw energy from an external source. This source is hypothesized to be time itself, interacting with stellar matter. This concept is presented as a potential explanation for the longevity of stars and the existence of super-giants.

Experimental Investigations

The issue details experiments conducted using vibrational regimes and torsion balances to detect changes in time density. Observations during multiple solar eclipses (1961, 1966, 1971, 1975, 1976) showed a decrease in time density. Specifically, experiments at Pulkovo using lever scales in a vibrational regime indicated a reduction in the forces caused by the 'flow of time' during these eclipses. Further experiments with torsion balances, designed to be highly sensitive to subtle forces, also demonstrated a decrease in time density during solar eclipses, suggesting that the Sun emits time along with light.

Time Density and Its Fluctuations

Research indicates that time density is a scalar quantity that decreases with distance from its source. The experiments suggest that processes occurring in nature can either weaken or strengthen the 'causal influence' within a system, thereby affecting time density. Processes that increase entropy, such as heating, melting ice, and evaporation, are described as 'emitting time,' while processes that decrease entropy, like cooling and freezing, 'absorb time.' The study also explored the concept of 'time screening' and 'time reflection,' with materials like aluminum acting as effective reflectors of time.

Astronomical Observations Using Time

The research extends to the possibility of using time properties for astronomical observations. Experiments with torsion balances, some placed in astronomical telescopes (PM-700 and MTM-500), aimed to detect the influence of celestial objects, such as stars, on time. While challenging due to environmental factors, some observations, like those of the star η Cas and the X-ray source Cyg X-1, showed measurable deflections of the torsion balance, supporting the hypothesis that celestial bodies exert an influence via time.

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical underpinnings involve the concept of time's directional flow, described as a pseudovector. The authors propose that the interaction of time with matter can generate energy and rotational momentum within systems. The mathematical framework presented relates the 'flow of time' to physical properties and suggests that time can be measured by the rate of transformation of cause into effect.

References

The issue includes a literature review with six references, including works by N.A. Kozyrev, V.S. Kazachok, O.B. Khovroshkin, V.V. Tsyplakov, A. Shapovalov, and V. Zvirblis, and cites a source from 1985 concerning physical aspects of modern astronomy.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

This publication strongly advocates for the physical reality of time's properties and its active role in the universe, extending beyond its conventional role as a mere dimension. The research presented is experimental and theoretical, aiming to establish time as a fundamental force influencing astronomical phenomena and physical processes. The editorial stance is one of pioneering research, challenging established scientific paradigms by proposing and investigating time as a tangible, measurable, and influential aspect of reality.

This issue of "Astronomicheskii Vestnik" (Volume XXI, Issue 21, dated January 15, 1976) focuses on the research of Soviet astronomer Nikolai Alexandrovich Kozyrev, particularly his hypothesis on the energetic nature of time and its observable effects.

Research on Time and Celestial Bodies

The issue details experiments conducted using torsion balances to measure subtle effects attributed to time. Figure 4 illustrates the action of the star η Cas on a torsion balance, showing a deflection of 5 degrees. The article categorizes various celestial objects based on the deviations they produced on the torsion balance, ranging from no deviation (0°) for many stars and objects like M13 and Saturn, to small deviations (2°-3°) for galaxies like M81 and Andromeda, and significant deviations (3°-5°) for objects like Sirius, Procyon, and the galactic center. A particularly large deviation (9°) was recorded for α Cmi. The Moon and Venus showed irregular deviations, attributed to tectonic or other processes on their surfaces.

Kozyrev suggests that super-dense objects like white dwarfs and the source Cyg X-1 are strong emitters of time's influence. He posits that the effects observed from Procyon and Sirius might be due to their white dwarf companions. The article notes that time's action follows geometric optics, decreasing with the square of the distance from the source.

Observations indicate that Earth's atmosphere does not significantly absorb time, allowing for daytime observations, though dense clouds hinder them. The research also explored mechanical systems to study time's effects. Page 2 describes experiments with a rotating disk, where time-emitting processes caused clockwise rotation, and time-absorbing processes caused counter-clockwise rotation. These experiments were challenging due to the need for highly homogeneous materials.

Further experiments detailed on pages 2-4 involved photocells and changes in electrical resistance. A lunar eclipse on November 18, 1975, was observed using torsion balances with photocells. The cooling of the Moon's surface during the eclipse did not affect the balance, but its subsequent heating caused an increase in the photocell's action, suggesting a link between time and energy transfer. Similar effects were observed with changes in sunlight due to passing clouds.

Another experimental setup used a Wheatstone bridge with wire resistances to measure changes caused by time. These experiments showed that processes emitting time decreased resistance, while those absorbing time increased it, with relative changes on the order of 10⁻⁵ to 10⁻⁶. Figure 5 illustrates the changes in photocell action during a lunar eclipse on November 18, 1973.

Figure 6 shows observations of conductor resistance changes under the influence of stars like α Leo, Saturn, and Mars using a MTM-500 telescope. α Leo consistently showed a distinct effect, while Mars exhibited variable effects. The article highlights the advantage of physical systems over mechanical ones for astronomical observations due to their ability to perform differential measurements, reducing the impact of atmospheric conditions.

Page 5 discusses experiments with quartz plates, where time-emitting processes increased oscillation frequency by about 1 Hz (10⁻⁷ relative change), but this system proved unstable.

Figure 7 on page 6 depicts observations of Procyon's effect on torsion balances. The results suggested the absence of refraction effects when time acts, but further observations were hampered by poor weather.

Kozyrev's Hypothesis and Its Implications

Kozyrev's central idea is that time is not merely a passive dimension but an active physical entity that carries energy and influences physical processes. He argues that stars do not generate energy solely through thermonuclear reactions, as commonly believed. Instead, he proposes that stars are highly economical machines that convert an unknown form of energy into light, drawing this energy from time itself. This hypothesis challenges conventional astrophysical models.

He posits that time is instantaneous throughout the universe and does not involve the propagation of impulses, thus avoiding contradictions with the principle of relativity. The concept of time's action being instantaneous is crucial to his theory.

Discussion Section

The issue includes a discussion section where N.A. Kozyrev answers questions from other scientists. Key points from the discussion include:

• Sun's Energy: Kozyrev suggests the Sun absorbs time during eclipses and that stars, in general, process time into energy, potentially releasing excess energy. He believes the Sun needs to draw energy from time to maintain its output.
• Time's Nature: He clarifies that his research focuses on the physical properties of time (e.g., density, direction) rather than its geometric aspects as described by relativity. He distinguishes between the speed of time's 'rotation' (related to cause-and-effect chains) and its 'propagation'.
• Instantaneous Action: Kozyrev reiterates that time's action is instantaneous across the universe, meaning it appears everywhere at once without propagation.

Biographical and Contextual Information

Page 9 introduces Nikolai Alexandrovich Kozyrev (1908-1983) and his controversial hypothesis about the energetic nature of time. It mentions his difficult experiences during Stalin's purges and his release in late 1946, followed by the successful defense of his doctoral dissertation "Sources of Stellar Energy and the Theory of Stellar Structure" in March 1947.

Page 10 reiterates Kozyrev's argument that stars cannot sustain their energy output through thermonuclear reactions alone, as temperatures are insufficient and they would have burned out long ago. He asserts that stars are economical machines that do not expend their own substance for energy production, implying they receive energy from an external source – time.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The recurring theme throughout this issue is the exploration of time as an active, energetic force rather than a passive dimension. The research presented, primarily by N.A. Kozyrev, challenges established scientific paradigms in physics and astronomy. The editorial stance appears to be one of presenting Kozyrev's controversial but meticulously researched work, acknowledging its unconventional nature while highlighting the experimental evidence gathered. The inclusion of a discussion section suggests an engagement with the scientific community, even if the ideas are met with skepticism.

This issue of "Тайны XX века" (Secrets of the 20th Century), issue No. 25, dated July 2007, focuses on the controversial and groundbreaking work of astronomer N.A. Kozyrev concerning the nature of time and its interaction with matter and energy. The articles explore Kozyrev's experiments and theories, which challenged established physics and suggested phenomena like instantaneous communication and the possibility of influencing the past and future.

Kozyrev's Gyroscope Experiments

The first article details Kozyrev's experiments with a gyroscope. He proposed that the interaction between the gyroscope's rotation and the instrument's support could create an additional force along the axis of rotation. In one experiment, a gyroscope was placed on a balance scale. When the gyroscope rotated clockwise, the balance remained stable. However, when the rotation was reversed to counter-clockwise, the balance tipped, indicating a downward force on that side. This was interpreted as evidence of a force directed upwards along the axis of the instrument. Further experiments, including placing a thermos of hot water near the setup, were conducted to rule out other explanations, with the results consistently pointing to an interaction related to the gyroscope's motion.

Instantaneous Communication and Time Density

Another section explores Kozyrev's hypothesis that time is not a flow but exists everywhere instantaneously. He believed that by altering time in one location, it could be changed everywhere in the universe. To test this, Kozyrev, with the help of engineer Viktor Nasonov, conducted experiments using a telescope. In one setup, a telescope was aimed at a star, but its objective was covered. Despite this, an electrical conductivity sensor in the focus registered changes, which Kozyrev attributed to the instantaneous flow of time from the star. He further modified the experiment by pointing the telescope at the star's past, present, and future positions. In all three cases, sensors detected a signal, leading Kozyrev to conclude that it was possible to enter into contact with the past and future through the flow of time. These findings, published in a 1980 scientific collection, were controversial, with Nobel laureate A.K. Prokhorov reportedly demanding the issue be destroyed, though the editor managed to preserve it.

Summary of Kozyrev's Work and Legacy

A biographical summary notes that Nikolai Alexandrovich was born in 1908, the year of the Tunguska event, and suggests a possible connection between this event and his later work on time. While his theories remained incomplete due to his untimely death, the article asserts that Kozyrev provided evidence for a universal form of instantaneous interaction, which he believed was the fundamental nature of time. His experiments were reportedly repeated by scientific groups, with some even claiming to have photographed the Sun in its future position.

The River of the Universe: Kozyrev's Thoughts on Time

This section, attributed to Viktor Nikitin, delves deeper into Kozyrev's ideas, contrasting them with classical mechanics' view of time as a unidirectional, uniform flow. Kozyrev proposed that time appears everywhere simultaneously and that altering it in one point affects the entire universe. He introduced the concept of 'time density,' linked to entropy, suggesting that changes in entropy (like dissolving sugar in tea) affect time density, which can be measured by sensitive instruments. An example given is the measurement of time density during a lunar eclipse, where the rapid cooling of the Moon's surface was correlated with a change in mercury thermometer readings, interpreted as an increase in the density of time.

Kozyrev's experiments with a Crimean telescope aimed at stars aimed to prove the instantaneous transmission of time. By observing stars whose light had traveled for years, he sought to detect their current, invisible positions by measuring time density. The experiments reportedly showed that stars had visible (past) and invisible (present) positions, and in some cases, even a third, future position, suggesting a deterministic universe but also the potential to predict future events, like the destruction of a star.

Time, Energy, and the Universe

Another article discusses the implications of Kozyrev's work, suggesting that time is not merely a passive dimension but an active principle. It explores the idea that living organisms might gain vitality from time itself. The interaction of physical systems through time is compared to the way binary stars influence each other, becoming similar over time. The article also touches upon the possibility of using time properties for interstellar communication, bypassing the limitations of light speed.

The Controversy of N-rays and Scientific Epidemics

This section, written by V. Barashenkov, shifts focus to the phenomenon of scientific 'epidemics,' using the example of N-rays discovered by French physicist R. Blondlot. Despite initial confirmations and widespread excitement, the existence of N-rays was later debunked by physicist R. Wood, who demonstrated that the observed effects were due to self-deception and suggestion. This serves as a cautionary tale about how scientific consensus can be influenced by authority and the desire for discovery, potentially leading to the acceptance of non-existent phenomena.

Kozyrev's Work in Context

The article returns to Kozyrev's ideas, framing them within the broader context of scientific inquiry. It highlights that Kozyrev's work, like the N-ray phenomenon, initially faced skepticism but was later supported by independent researchers. The text suggests that Kozyrev's theories about time, energy, and the universe might represent a significant scientific breakthrough, potentially more important than Newton's laws or Einstein's theory of relativity. The issue concludes by mentioning ongoing research into new fields like 'etherodynamics' and the potential for technologies based on manipulating space-time.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The recurring themes in this issue are the nature of time, the possibility of instantaneous communication, the role of gyroscopes in physics, and the controversial yet potentially revolutionary ideas of N.A. Kozyrev. The editorial stance appears to be one of exploring unconventional scientific ideas and historical controversies, presenting Kozyrev's work as a significant, albeit disputed, contribution to our understanding of the universe. The inclusion of the N-ray example serves to highlight the challenges and pitfalls of scientific discovery, suggesting a need for critical evaluation even when faced with seemingly compelling evidence.

This issue of "Znanie-Sila" (Knowledge is Strength) from March 1992, features a significant portion dedicated to the theories and experiments of Professor Nikolai Alexandrovich Kozyrev, a Russian astrophysicist known for his unconventional ideas about time. The articles, written by Albert Valentinov, explore Kozyrev's concept of time as a material, active force and the experimental evidence he gathered.

"Ice" Hypotheses

The introductory section critiques the proliferation of unverified scientific claims, particularly those made by individuals outside mainstream physics. It highlights how simple quantitative analysis and experimental verification are crucial for distinguishing genuine discoveries from speculative fantasies. The author notes that while physicists possess advanced instruments to detect subtle phenomena, they often fail to observe the exotic fields and energies claimed by others, questioning the reasons behind this discrepancy.

"Icicles" of Hypotheses

This section delves into the difficulty of reconciling new hypotheses with existing scientific knowledge. It emphasizes that any new theory must be consistent with the vast web of scientific understanding. Quantitative calculations and control experiments are presented as the primary tools for validating scientific claims, separating them from mere imaginative speculation. The text criticizes the medieval scholastic practice of creating endless chains of hypotheses to support a flawed initial idea, likening them to "icicles."

The River of Material Time

Kozyrev's core idea is presented: time is not just a measure of duration but a material entity with density and specific properties, akin to a flowing river. This concept, though seemingly paradoxical, is argued to have a basis in modern physics, particularly quantum theory's view of vacuum as a 'smog' of particles and Einstein's theory of relativity, which links space and time. The article traces the philosophical roots of this idea to ancient concepts of two fundamental world substances: material and incorporeal.

Time as a Physical Factor

Unlike conventional physics, which treats time as a passive geometric property, Kozyrev viewed it as an active participant in events. He proposed that time, like a river, has density and can exert a force on material bodies. This force can either accelerate or decelerate processes, suggesting time has both passive (geometric) and active (internal structure-dependent) properties.

Sources and Sinks of Time

Kozyrev's theory posits that the "density" of time reflects its activity and influence on processes. Interactions with matter can change this density. Irreversible processes, such as friction or evaporation, are seen as either emitting or absorbing time. "Sources" of time are associated with processes that increase its density (emission), while "sinks" reduce it (absorption). The universe is metaphorically described as an ocean with sources and sinks of time, where time's flow can lead to decay or renewal.

Time and Information

Destructive processes that increase entropy and disorder are thought to emit time laden with information. Conversely, absorbing this time can help organize matter and restore structure. This implies that processes like melting snow or dissolving sugar are sources of time, while their absorption by neighboring systems can repair defects and restore order. This also suggests that changes in electrical resistance, heat capacity, and magnetic properties might occur near such processes.

The Cosmic Flow of Time

The article likens the flow of time to a river that constantly influences events and redistributes energy and information. It suggests that spring on Earth brings "turbulent streams of time" that renew nature, while autumn sees decaying fields and forests emitting time, and crystallization absorbing it.

The Past and Future

This section addresses the directionality of time, the "arrow of time." While a definitive answer remains elusive, the prevailing view is that it relates to the interconnectedness of all phenomena. Irreversible processes are seen as defining this direction. The article touches upon the bleak prospect of the universe's eventual heat death, a state of maximum entropy, but notes that Kozyrev rejected this idea. He believed that time absorption processes act as stabilizers, preventing total dissipation and enabling a cyclical nature of the universe.

Kozyrev's Hypothesis on Stellar Energy

Kozyrev saw evidence for his theories in the sustained energy output of stars. He suggested that the observed neutrino emissions from nuclear reactions might be insufficient to explain stellar luminosity, proposing that stars might be emitting time, which then converts into energy. While other explanations exist, Kozyrev favored this one.

The Search for a Stabilizing Process

Kozyrev's quest was to find a process that prevents the universe from reaching a state of complete equilibrium. His search led him to explore the fundamental nature of causality.

Who is Older – the Egg or the Hen?

This section explores the relationship between cause and effect, and how it relates to the direction of time. Kozyrev sought to understand how phenomena are linked not just by correlation but by direct causation. He noted that time seems to be involved in the very definition of causality, creating a logical loop: time is defined by causality, and causality depends on time. This is likened to the age-old question of which came first, the chicken or the egg.

Causal Mechanics

Kozyrev proposed a "causal mechanics" where time is the driving force behind cause-and-effect. He suggested that time flows into a system through the cause and becomes denser at the effect. This interaction creates forces that can be measured. He theorized that mechanical systems, which are the simplest to study, could provide evidence for his ideas.

The Last Experiment of Professor Kozyrev

This section recounts the author's personal connection to Professor Kozyrev and his final, unobserved experiment. The author regrets not being able to witness Kozyrev's work firsthand due to his untimely death. The article highlights Kozyrev's controversial discovery of lunar volcanism, which was initially met with skepticism. It then describes Kozyrev's experiments with a gyroscope and a vibrator, which allegedly demonstrated that the gyroscope's weight changed depending on the direction of its rotation and the presence of external vibrations. This effect, Kozyrev claimed, was inexplicable by known physics and indicated the influence of time.

Gyroscope Experiments and Time's Influence

Kozyrev's experiments involved a gyroscope suspended from a balance scale. When a vibrator was introduced, the gyroscope's apparent weight changed. He proposed that when the gyroscope's rotation aligned with the "true direction of time," additional forces emerged. These experiments, though yielding small but repeatable effects, were difficult to explain within the framework of classical physics. The article suggests these findings could point to phenomena more fundamental than relativity and quantum mechanics.

Time as a Universal Constant

Further experiments involved directing a telescope at stars, even those no longer present at that location in space, and observing the gyroscope's weight change. This suggested that time's influence is instantaneous and universal, not limited by the speed of light. Kozyrev's final experiment involved pointing a telescope at a point in space where no stars existed, and the gyroscope showed no change, implying that time's influence is tied to physical processes and structures.

Time and the Universe's Structure

Kozyrev's work led him to believe that time is the primary driving force of the universe, connecting past, present, and future not linearly but simultaneously. He suggested that events repeat across "quanta of time," implying a cyclical or repeating nature of history. The article concludes by posing the question of whether time itself is the organizing principle behind life and the universe, a concept that has been referred to as a "creator" throughout history.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The recurring themes in this issue revolve around the nature of time, causality, and the scientific method. The magazine appears to champion unconventional scientific inquiry, particularly the work of Professor Kozyrev, while also acknowledging the importance of rigorous experimental verification. The editorial stance seems to be one of open-mindedness towards radical hypotheses, provided they are supported by empirical evidence, even if that evidence challenges established paradigms. The articles highlight the ongoing debate between established scientific views and emerging, potentially revolutionary, theories about the fundamental workings of the universe.

This issue of "Inzhenernaya Gazeta" (Engineering Gazette), issue number 76, from July 1991, delves into theoretical physics and information science. The content explores the possibility of time travel and the evolution of information theory, linking it to thermodynamics and cybernetics.

Time Travel and Predictions

The first article, found on page 51, discusses the concept of time travel, suggesting that experiments by Kozyrev indicate its theoretical possibility. It posits that the past and future coexist simultaneously. The article uses Nostradamus, the 16th-century astrologer and physician, as an example of a predictor whose prophecies have remarkably come true. It lists several of Nostradamus's predictions, including the appearance of Peter I in Russia, the discovery of America, the formation of the United States, the assassination of Paul, the execution of Charles I, the rise of Napoleon and Lenin, and the October Revolution in Russia, even specifying the month. The article suggests that if such predictions are possible, then the future must exist and be connected to us, with some individuals capable of receiving this information. It concludes that while the method of traveling to the past is not yet known, history shows that humanity eventually finds answers to such questions.

Stages of Development in Modern Information Theory

Pages 52-55 present a detailed exposition by Alexander Karavaikin on the stages of development in modern information theory, tracing its connections to thermodynamics and cybernetics.

First Stage: Classical Thermodynamics

The first stage, dating back about two hundred years, was dominated by Newtonian mechanics, which viewed the world as static and unchanging. The concept of time was not central. The foundation of thermodynamics was laid by Sadi Carnot in 1824 with his work on the motive force of fire and engines. His ideas were later mathematically formalized by Benoît Paul Clapeyron. The first law of thermodynamics (conservation and transformation of energy) was independently formulated by Robert Mayer, Hermann Helmholtz, and James Joule. The second law, concerning the irreversible increase of entropy in spontaneous processes, was also attributed to Carnot. However, in this stage, thermodynamics was largely concerned with statics and equilibrium processes. The conclusion of this stage was Thompson's idea of the "heat death of the universe."

Second Stage: Evolutionary Physics and Entropy

Darwin's discoveries in biology marked the second stage, termed "evolutionary physics." This stage introduced a probabilistic interpretation of entropy, famously expressed by Boltzmann's formula: S = K ln P, where S is entropy, K is Boltzmann's constant, and P is the statistical weight of a system's state. This formula shows that entropy increases exponentially with probability, meaning disordered states are more probable than ordered ones. This led to a scientific revolution, but Boltzmann's work was not fully appreciated, contributing to his suicide in 1906. The work of Boltzmann and Gibbs elevated entropy to a measure of a system's order, not just energy degradation.

Third Stage: Information Theory and Non-Equilibrium Systems

The third stage is linked to the rise of information theory, seen as a logical continuation of thermodynamics. The value of entropy as a characteristic of systems increased significantly, leading to the development of linear thermodynamics by Onsager and Prigogine, which studied open non-equilibrium systems. This field quantified the dependence on time and calculated the rate of entropy increase, leading to the concept of dissipative systems (Prigogine) and synergetics (Haken). The article identifies N.A. Kozyrev's theory as the beginning of this third stage.

Cybernetics and Information

In the 1940s, cybernetics emerged, founded by Norbert Wiener, focusing on control and communication in animals and machines. Its goals included understanding the nature of information and optimizing its transmission. The article highlights a direct connection between thermodynamics and information theory, exemplified by the information theory equation: I = log2 P, where I is information and P is the probability of an event. Information is measured in bits. The formula for information when events have different probabilities is Shannon's formula: I = -∑ P log P. This quantity was termed "information entropy."

Information and Entropy

The article explains that an increase in information is equivalent to a decrease in entropy, calling this one of the fundamental laws of the universe. The transfer of information requires an increase in entropy, while the receiving system experiences a decrease in its own entropy. Information is defined as a choice of situations from a large number of possibilities, which can be perceived and remembered. The reception of information requires a certain level of perception and capacity.

Kozyrev's Theory and Non-Electromagnetic Information

According to Kozyrev's theory, time has physical properties that allow information from ongoing processes to be carried by time and perceived by other systems. Processes that increase entropy radiate information, while the receiving system's entropy decreases. Processes that decrease entropy in the "transmitting" system lead to opposite results in the receiving system. The density of time influences its activity. Kozyrev's work proposed a fundamentally new non-electromagnetic channel for information transfer, which is a direct consequence of information theory. The reception of this information is linked to its "value."

Value of Information

The concept of the "value of information" was explored by Soviet-era scientists like M.M. Bongard, R.L. Stratonovich, and A.A. Kharkevich. Bongard's work connects the usefulness of a message to the increased probability of achieving a goal after receiving it. The value of information (V) can be expressed as V = log(P/P'), where P and P' are the probabilities of achieving a goal before and after receiving information. The article notes that information value can be negative, signifying disinformation.

The Fifth Stage: Non-Electromagnetic Cybernetics

The article critiques Kozyrev's principle that all non-electromagnetic information leads to a decrease in entropy, stating that experiments have shown this is not always true; sometimes, it can lead to an increase in entropy. The value of information is crucial for non-electromagnetic information exchange. The fifth stage of modern information theory is non-electromagnetic cybernetics. This stage posits that non-electromagnetic information flows, driven by various physical, biological, and intellectual processes, cause adequate changes in the entropy of receptor systems, corresponding to the value of the information. These changes can be detected using developed technologies. This concept represents a breakthrough in understanding non-electromagnetic interactions in the world.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The issue consistently explores the intersection of physics, information, and the unknown. It presents theoretical possibilities like time travel and non-electromagnetic communication as subjects of scientific inquiry, drawing on both historical figures and contemporary research. The editorial stance appears to be one of open-minded exploration of cutting-edge scientific concepts, even those that challenge conventional understanding.