British and Irish Skeptic - 1987 - Vol 1 No 5

Magazine Overview

Title: The British & Irish Skeptic
Issue Date: September/October 1987
Volume: I, Number 5

This issue of The British & Irish Skeptic delves into various claims of the paranormal and pseudoscientific phenomena, offering a critical and investigative perspective. It features a range of articles, departments, and reviews, aiming to provide a rational examination of extraordinary claims.

Articles

Special Report: Geller in Reading Michael Hutchinson recounts an investigation into Uri Geller's charity performance in Reading. Hutchinson and Lewis Jones met with local newspaper journalists, Tim Boone and Jackie May, to discuss Geller's claims. Hutchinson demonstrates how fork-bending could be achieved through trickery, and both journalists were unimpressed by Geller's act, particularly the levitation trick. An article in the Evening Post subsequently branded Geller a 'fake,' with journalist Tim Boone admitting he had figured out how Geller performed 'roughly half his stage feats.' The report commends the Evening Post for its critical attitude.

Abductions in Perspective Hilary Evans examines UFO abduction stories, presenting them within a broader context.

Science vs. Pseudoscience: Part One Peter O'Hara begins a series exploring the nature of science and pseudoscience, aiming to provide criteria for distinguishing between the two.

Magicians, Mediums & Psychics David Alexander contributes the first of a three-part series on the overlap and distinctions between these professions.

Sagan's Universe William Steele offers a look at Carl Sagan, the scientist, likely exploring his views on science and skepticism.

Departments

Hits & Misses This section covers various brief news items and reports. It includes information on BBC Scotland planning a series on paranormal topics, a call for researchers for specific paranormal claims (Doris Collins, Doris Stokes, seasonal patterns of paranormal reporting, alternative therapies, faith healing experiments, psychic predictions, celebrity beliefs), and details about Karl Sabbagh's documentary on why people believe in the paranormal. It also features a letter about research for a documentary on Irish superstition and an explanation for 'weeping statues' being due to water retention in plastic coatings. A report on Doris Stokes' missing fortune is also mentioned.

European Report This section details activities and claims from various European countries. In Austria, Professor Wolfgang Gombocz reports on the formation of regional skeptical groups in Graz and other areas. He also mentions an article about Uri Geller's claims of dowsing for gold and oil and working for the CIA. From Spain, Luis Alfonso Gamez Dominguez shares skeptical articles, including one about a comet possibly hitting Earth in 1908 and another on the search for extraterrestrial life. Credulous articles mentioned include claims about 'natural medicines,' a 'lemon in the shape of a dog's paw' revolutionizing parapsychology, homeopathy, and a parapsychology workshop. Reports of the US investigating extraterrestrials in New Mexico, UFO alerts, and a parapsychology course are also noted. A piece about the miraculous liquification of San Genaro's blood is also included.

State of the Art Frank Chambers reviews a book titled 'How To Build A Lie Detector, Brain Wave Monitor & Other Secret Parapsychological Electronic Projects.' Chambers expresses skepticism about the book's claims, noting that it lists various projects like telepathic message receivers and UFO detectors, and implies they have been tested by scientists. He humorously wishes he could build a lie detector for his philodendron.

Skeptics in the News This section likely highlights news related to skeptical individuals or organizations.

Psychic Diary Toby Howard contributes a regular column on psychic matters.

The Press Gallery This section reviews articles from other publications. It includes reviews of 'Nessie in Conference,' 'BUFORA's Congress '87' by Steuart Campbell, 'Geller's Hot-Air Balloon' by Lewis Jones, 'I Saw a Dupe' by Karl Sabbagh, and 'The Vanishing Hitchhiker' by Andrew Tomlinson.

Other Sections

Edinburgh Science Festival This piece discusses the upcoming inauguration of the Edinburgh International Festival of Science and Technology in 1989, with a theme of 'Intelligent Communications.' It also mentions the 1990 theme focusing on the science of food.

Jinxes and Folklore Robert Morris of Edinburgh University is researching odd events and folklore, believing there is a problem in this area but not necessarily psychic activity. His team is using computers to analyze data for common themes.

More UFO Conspiracies This section reviews Timothy Good's book 'Above Top Secret,' noting that much of its evidence is hearsay. It mentions allegations about astronauts seeing UFOs on the Moon, flying saucers being examined in the US, and a global cover-up of UFO information. Scathing reviews from The Spectator and The Guardian are also cited, criticizing the book's claims.

No Ghost in Sheffield An article from the 'Sheffield News' reported a ghostly face in a wooden door at Sheffield Manor, which was later explained as a coincidence caused by light falling on varnish blobs.

The Colossus of Rhodes This piece examines Mrs Ann Dankbaar's claim to have located the Colossus of Rhodes. The Australian Skeptics issued a challenge to prove her psychic powers, and it was revealed that her 'acknowledgement' from the University of Adelaide was a personal letter from a senior lecturer in electrical engineering.

UFO-Line Science writer Steuart Campbell reports on issues with the UFO-Line service, clarifying that it is provided by Audio Text PLC, not British Telecom. He discusses the Telecommunications Act 1984 and the code of practice for service providers, concluding that he could not complain about the service based on its general nature.

Geller's Hot-Air Balloon This section comments on Uri Geller's 'Sun' escapade, drawing parallels to a previous stunt involving cows. It notes the reluctance of the 'Sun' news desk to provide information about the story.

Faith Healing Reports on faith healers experimenting with treating sick horses and the opening of the world's first research center for fringe medicines at Exeter University.

Beasts This section covers reports on Yeti hair being identified as Himalayan brown bear, the New Scientist suggesting a more open-minded approach to the Yeti, and the discovery of a new type of large cat in eastern Scotland. It also mentions the electronic search of Loch Ness, Operation Deepscan.

Berlitz's Archaeology This reviews Charles Berlitz's book 'Atlantis: the Lost Continent Revealed,' with reviewer Trevor Palmer finding no evidence for an advanced civilization in the late Pleistocene.

OBE Experiment An article in 'She' magazine discusses Out of Body Experiences (OBEs) and the research of Dr Susan Blackmore. It highlights Dr Charles McCreery's scientific approach to OBE research at the Institute of Psychophysical Research, seeking participants for his study.

Press Clippings Wanted A request for readers to send in newspaper and magazine clippings for the 'Hits & Misses' and 'Press Gallery' sections.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The recurring themes in this issue revolve around the critical examination of paranormal claims, pseudoscience, and extraordinary phenomena. The magazine consistently adopts a skeptical stance, seeking scientific explanations and evidence. It highlights instances where claims are debunked, explained through natural means, or found to be lacking in credible evidence. The editorial stance is clearly in favor of rational inquiry and scientific methodology, encouraging readers to question and investigate claims rather than accepting them at face value. The magazine also serves as a platform for reporting on skeptical activities and research worldwide, fostering a community of like-minded individuals.

This issue of The British & Irish Skeptic, dated September/October 1987, features a cover story titled "ABDUCTIONS in PERSPECTIVE" by Hilary Evans. The magazine adopts a skeptical and analytical approach to paranormal phenomena, contrasting scientific methodology with pseudoscientific claims.

Abductions in Perspective by Hilary Evans

Hilary Evans begins by stating that abduction reports are the most dramatic manifestation of the UFO phenomenon. If taken as reported, they would imply a larger scenario of extraterrestrial contact and represent the most important event in human history. However, Evans questions whether the reality of these experiences is the everyday physical world or the witness's mind. While acknowledging the compelling plausibility of abduction accounts, Evans suggests that alternative interpretations might exist beyond the jigsaw-puzzle fit of elements presented in such stories.

Abductions in the UFO Perspective

Evans highlights the inherent paradox in abduction stories: they are defined by their association with UFOs, yet no abduction-related UFO has been conclusively detected, nor has anyone been seen being taken aboard or returning from one. Abductees have also been prevented from obtaining material proof. This leads to the question of whether abductions are simply a more sophisticated form of earlier contactee claims, potentially explainable by psychosocial factors.

Abductions in the Contactee Perspective

Evans contrasts abduction experiences with contactee experiences, suggesting the latter are ostensibly similar but likely do not occur. The article notes that contactees often claimed to have met benevolent beings with a mission to save the world, which was largely unconvincing. Abductees, on the other hand, offer stories that are easier to believe, focusing on physical examination or genetic experimentation rather than being chosen as special individuals.

Abductions in the Perspective of Imaginary Abductions

Alvin Lawson's experiments are discussed, which showed that subjects in a suitable state of mind could concoct detailed and dramatic "encounter" stories that were strikingly similar to those of "true" abductees. While these experiments do not prove that abductees fabricate their accounts, they suggest that individuals can find the necessary resources within themselves to create such stories. A key difference noted is the strong emotional and sometimes physiological effect on "true" abductees, which Lawson's volunteers did not experience. However, Evans argues this emotional state might be the cause rather than the consequence of the abduction experience, suggesting it could be a manifestation of an internal psychological problem.

Abductions in the Perspective of Psychological States

Evans links abduction experiences to altered states of consciousness, mentioning phenomena like hallucinations, enhanced psychic awareness, and roleplaying in scenarios of possession or dissociated personality. The article notes that behavioral scientists acknowledge many forms of human behavior lack formal explanatory models, such as amnesia or precognition. The similarity of abduction stories, even with bizarre details, is presented as a formidable challenge to skeptics, convincing some researchers like Budd Hopkins that extraterrestrials are already present.

Abductions in the Perspective of Traditional Belief

The article points out that the idea of abduction is deeply rooted in folklore, citing traditions of kidnapping by fairies. This suggests that abduction experiences are not novel phenomena born of the Space Age but may be a modern manifestation of ancient themes. The article cautions against accepting abduction experiences as fundamentally different from other historical claims like diabolical possession without more evidence.

For and Against the Abduction Experience

Evans acknowledges that abduction experiences are subjective and unsubstantiated, with many similarities to other known fictional stories. However, arguments in favor of their reality include the internal plausibility of elaborate cases like Kathie Davis's, the genuine emotional response of witnesses, consistent accounts from multiple abductees, recurrent features like scars, and the lack of obvious pathological backgrounds in witnesses. Furthermore, some abductees report positive life changes, suggesting a real event.

Conversely, objections include the improbability of spacecraft avoiding detection, the inconsistency of ET crews, and illogical behavior of abductors (e.g., wanting witnesses to forget while also monitoring them). The lack of hard evidence, such as convincing photographs or souvenirs, is a significant counterpoint. The absence of independent witnesses and the issue of scars being potentially self-created or prompted by other factors are also raised.

Ron Westrum's observation of a "contagion effect" where abduction reports increase after publicized cases like the Hills is mentioned, suggesting a sociological phenomenon. The article concludes that neither the arguments for nor against abduction experiences provide a clear case, and more satisfactory evidence is needed.

Science vs. Pseudoscience by Peter O'Hara

Peter O'Hara, a clinical psychiatrist and Convenor of the Irish Skeptics, aims to distinguish pseudoscience from genuine science. He defines science not by its subject matter (like atoms or forces) but as a method of obtaining knowledge that tends to reduce mistakes. Mistakes are categorized into "confounding variables" (unmeasured factors affecting results) and "experimenter bias" (expectations influencing outcomes).

O'Hara uses the example of falling bodies to illustrate confounding variables, explaining how air resistance, not just weight, affects fall speed. He discusses how science progresses by refining experiments to isolate variables, such as using a vacuum chamber to remove air resistance. He also touches upon the challenge of experimenter bias, particularly in social and psychological sciences, and methods to mitigate it, like standardizing procedures and using multiple interviewers.

The article explains the importance of control groups in experiments, especially in social sciences and medicine, to compare outcomes with and without the variable under investigation. It also addresses the "placebo effect" and the need for double-blind studies. O'Hara concludes by stating that while past events cannot be manipulated, knowledge of them can be extrapolated from present-day experiments, though this knowledge is less complete than that derived from repeatable experiments.

Magicians, Mediums & Psychics by David Alexander

David Alexander, a former magician and private investigator, addresses the harm of believing in the paranormal. He argues that unquestioning acceptance indicates an abandonment of critical thinking and reasoning skills, leaving individuals open to exploitation by unscrupulous individuals and organizations. He cites the example of Jim Jones and the Peoples Temple tragedy, where "psychic healings" and telepathic readings were staged.

Alexander likens spirit mediums to pimps and heroin dealers, stating they exploit people's emotional needs. He recounts a case where a psychic preyed on a grieving widow, claiming her husband was alive and later escalating to sexual exploitation, even involving the daughter. The case was exposed when the daughter refused the psychic's demands.

Alexander discusses how mediums often use specialized apparatus and techniques like cold reading to create illusions of spiritual communication. He quotes Lamar Keene, a reformed medium, who describes mediums providing "spirit lovers" and charging exorbitant amounts for services. The article highlights that despite exposure, mediums continue to flourish because people, especially the bereaved, are vulnerable and desperately seek reassurance, sometimes prioritizing belief over logic and reason.

Hello UFOs

This brief section notes that while UFO sightings have decreased in some areas, Brazil continues to report them. It mentions plans for a UFO landing strip in Brasilia, designed to accommodate very large flying machines, as part of a project to boost the country's reputation for hospitality.

Sagan's Universe by William Steele

William Steele profiles Carl Sagan, emphasizing his role as a scientist beyond his public persona as a novelist and popularizer. Sagan's passion for science, particularly astronomy, is highlighted, along with his success in communicating complex scientific ideas to the public through the TV series "Cosmos" and his testimony on issues like nuclear winter. Sagan's numerous awards and his dedication to promoting peace and science communication are detailed.

Sagan's fascination with stars began in childhood, fueled by science fiction. He believes everyone is born a scientist but that many children are discouraged from pursuing scientific interests by parents and teachers. Sagan's own parents, though not scientifically inclined, supported his curiosity. The article suggests that Sagan's drive to share the wonder of science stems from a deep love for his subject.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The recurring theme throughout this issue is the critical examination of extraordinary claims, particularly those related to UFOs and the paranormal. The magazine consistently advocates for scientific rigor, evidence-based reasoning, and skepticism. It contrasts the methods of genuine science with the often unsubstantiated or exploitative nature of pseudoscience and paranormal claims. The editorial stance is clearly one of promoting rational inquiry and cautioning against uncritical belief, highlighting the potential for deception and psychological manipulation within these fields.

This issue of "The British & Irish Skeptic" from September/October 1987 features a prominent article on Carl Sagan, exploring his academic journey and scientific contributions. The magazine also includes sections on psychic phenomena, UFO reports, and skeptical analyses of various claims.

Carl Sagan: A Scientific Journey

The issue details Carl Sagan's early life and education, highlighting his attendance at public schools in Brooklyn and his graduation from Rahway High School at sixteen. His move to the University of Chicago, where he initially planned to major in astronomy, is described. The article notes his B.A. in 'nothing' and subsequent B.S. in physics, followed by a Master's degree and a PhD in astronomy and astrophysics under Gerard Kuiper. Sagan's early work included studying biology at Indiana University to prepare for extraterrestrial life research. His first scientific paper, at age 22, was in biology, titled "Radiation and the Origin of the Gene," suggesting solar radiation's role in forming early DNA molecules.

Sagan's career trajectory is traced through his consultation with NASA on spacecraft design, including work on the Mariner II mission to Venus and the Mariner missions to Mars. In 1962, he became an Assistant Professor of astronomy at Harvard and a researcher at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. The article then discusses his move to Cornell University in 1971 to develop the Center for Radiophysics and Space Research, an interdisciplinary program that included the Arecibo radiotelescope. This move was facilitated by Professor Thomas Gold, who sought to add planetary astronomers to his staff.

The issue highlights Sagan's role in building the planetary group at Cornell, suggesting other Harvard-trained scientists like Joseph Veverka and Peter Gierasch. His work on the atmospheres of Venus, Mars, and Jupiter is mentioned, particularly his suggestion that Venus's carbon dioxide atmosphere might cause a 'greenhouse effect,' raising its temperature significantly. A study on Martian dust clouds potentially blocking the sun led to the 'TTAPS Report' (co-authored with Richard P. Turco and others), which predicted drastic climate alteration and potential extinction following a nuclear war. Sagan actively engaged in convincing governments about the implications of nuclear winter, advocating for policy changes based on worst-case scenarios.

Beyond his scientific work, Sagan was a founder of CSICOP (Committee for Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal), dedicated to exposing pseudoscience. He aimed to make science accessible to the public through lectures and writing, believing there was a great hunger for such information. His rise to celebrity status is attributed partly to his television appearances, including regular spots on "The Tonight Show," and the success of the "Cosmos" television series, which he created due to perceived poor network coverage of space research.

Sagan's ability to make science understandable led to numerous publishing opportunities, resulting in the science fiction novel "Contact." He also served as president of The Planetary Society, supporting space travel and research, and helped fund a project to scan the skies for radio signals from intelligent extraterrestrial inhabitants.

Psychic Diary and Skeptical Investigations

Toby Howard's "Psychic Diary" column addresses the challenges of discussing psychic phenomena without straying into religious territory, using spiritualism as an example. He critiques the anecdotal nature of evidence for faith healing and suggests mundane explanations such as wrongful diagnosis, placebo effect, spontaneous remission, and fraud. Howard recounts an incident involving psychic Doris Stokes, where a woman's 'spirit message' was accurate but later revealed to have been based on prior knowledge gained from a telephone call.

The column also discusses the Alternative Medicine Exhibition, highlighting Radionics and crystal healing. Radionics is described as a distance healing method using instruments, while crystal healing is presented as a simple application of crystals. Howard expresses skepticism about the efficacy of these methods, particularly Radionics, questioning the necessity of the instruments.

Items from "Psychic News" are also featured, including a mention of Peter Froude, an automatist who claims to receive messages from spirits for his novel, and "Psychic Line," a dial-a-message service featuring Michael Colmer. The column notes Jim Elliot's regular slot on London's LBC radio investigating 'haunted' pubs and people's psychic experiences.

Media and UFO Reports

The "Media" section reviews articles from "The Sun" concerning Uri Geller, labeling him a "psychic sensation of the century." The articles claim Geller uses his psychic powers for mining, having allegedly discovered goldfields and coal deposits. The report criticizes "The Sun" for selectively presenting information that enhances Geller's image.

Another section, "On Titan, Hints of How Life Began on Earth," details Carl Sagan and Bishun Khare's experiments replicating conditions on Titan. They produced 'tholins,' complex molecules that, when mixed with water, yield amino acids, suggesting a link to the origin of life.

The "Press Gallery" covers various news items, including David Young, a clairvoyant with royal and police connections, and witchcraft reports in "The Daily Telegraph." The "Harmonic Convergence" event is mentioned, along with skeptical analyses of its astrological basis and claims of UFO sightings.

Conferences and Reviews

Steuart Campbell reports on the "Nessie in Conference" symposium, noting the lack of skeptical viewpoints and concluding that evidence pointed to the Loch Ness Monster's non-existence. He also attended BUFORA's "4th International UFO Congress '87," where he observed the difference between American and European UFOlogists, with the latter being more skeptical of abduction stories and the extraterrestrial hypothesis.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The magazine consistently adopts a skeptical stance towards paranormal claims, pseudoscience, and unsubstantiated phenomena. It emphasizes scientific inquiry, critical thinking, and the importance of evidence-based reasoning. The editorial stance appears to be one of promoting scientific literacy and debunking what it considers to be unfounded beliefs, whether they stem from psychic claims, UFOlogy, or misinterpretations of natural phenomena. The magazine aims to provide a rational perspective on topics often sensationalized by the media.

This issue of The British & Irish Skeptic, dated September/October 1987, focuses on debunking paranormal claims and exploring skepticism through various articles, book reviews, and letters.

The Sun's Uri Geller 'Experiment'

The lead article critically examines a large-scale 'psychic test' conducted by The Sun newspaper involving Uri Geller on August 27th. The newspaper predicted widespread paranormal phenomena, such as cutlery bending and broken appliances working. The article describes how The Sun claimed its switchboard was jammed with calls reporting these events, but points out the lack of verifiable evidence and the characteristic kink in bent spoons shown in photographs, suggesting simple trickery. The author highlights the exploitative nature of the coverage, particularly concerning a five-year-old child, Clifford Fedder, who allegedly regained speech after Geller's intervention. The article also debunks Geller's drawing test, noting that his chosen subject, a sailboat, is a common choice among mentalist magicians, and that the odds he claimed were vastly exaggerated.

Book Reviews: Debunking the Paranormal

Two book reviews, "I Saw a Ghost" by Ben Noakes and "Sorry, You've Been Duped!" by Melvin Harris, are presented as evidence of the British public's gullibility regarding supernatural events. The reviewer, Kari Sabbagh, argues that "I Saw a Ghost" is filled with implausible anecdotes, many not from eye-witnesses, and includes irrelevant items. The review criticizes the author's low opinion of the public's intelligence and points out that many stories are retold so many times that they lose credibility. The review of "Sorry, You've Been Duped!" praises Melvin Harris for meticulously tracing widely publicized paranormal events back to their sources, showing how the supernatural element disappears. Examples include the Amityville Horror being a publicity stunt and the 'Angels of Mons' originating from a short story. The cumulative effect of such research, according to the reviewer, is astonishment at the amount of lying and fraud promoting supernatural stories.

Urban Folklore: Legends and Meanings

Andrew Tomlinson reviews "The Vanishing Hitchhiker: Urban Legends and their Meanings" by Jan Harold Brunvand. The book explores modern American myths and legends, offering theories about their meanings and origins. These legends are typically 'friend of a friend' stories or 'real-life' nightmares. The review highlights examples like the vanishing hitchhiker, the dead mouse in a coke bottle, and the 'Kentucky Fried Rat'. Brunvand's work attempts to trace the sources of these stories, though often fruitlessly. The review notes that while the book isn't a debunking exercise, the existence of multiple versions of a legend often serves as the only evidence against credibility. The popularity of these stories is attributed to a love of storytelling and imagination, reflecting anxieties about modern technology, large organizations, and fear of strangers.

Letters to the Editor

Several letters address various topics:

• Doris Stokes: C. D. Allan comments on Doris Stokes, acknowledging the hope and comfort she provided to many, suggesting this should be considered when assessing her public value.
• Psychic Communication and Fermat's Theorem: C. D. Allan proposes that if a psychic could contact the deceased Pierre de Fermat and extract his unwritten proof of a mathematical theorem, it would demonstrate communication with the dead and cause a significant upheaval in spiritualist and scientific circles.
• The Sun's Psychic Test: J. A. Remfry humorously recounts buying The Sun for a fortnight for the Uri Geller test, joking about a 'sinister personality change'.
• The Knock Apparition: Stephen Moreton discusses Steuart Campbell's 'astronomical mirage' theory for the Knock apparition. Moreton admires Campbell's detective work but questions the theory, noting that the visions were reported over seven months, making a single mirage unlikely. He suggests other explanations like gossip, imagination, or genuine apparitions.
• Response to Knock Theory: Professor John C. Brown of Glasgow University's Astronomy Department responds to Campbell's theory, finding the idea of a magnified Jupiter image 'ludicrous' and suggesting that temperature inversions might cause some magnification, but not to the extent described. He prefers explanations like gossip, imagination, or even genuine apparitions.

Other Articles and Features

• Hypnotism Debate: An article from Fairly Serious Monthly magazine on hypnotism and hypnotic regression is contrasted with an article in The New Scientist questioning the reality of hypnosis. The latter quotes Graham Wagstaff, who states there is no conclusive evidence that hypnosis enables people to transcend normal capabilities, suggesting relaxation and reduced anxiety play a role.
• Vaccination and Schizophrenia: The magazine 'She' is noted for articles on schizophrenia, an uncritical piece on 'natural immunity' versus vaccination, and a review of "Vaccination and Immunization: Dangers, Delusions, and Alternatives" by Leon Chaitow. The reviewer, Simon Martin, summarizes Chaitow's arguments against medical establishment claims about vaccination success, attributing improvements to hygiene, sanitation, housing, and better nutrition, and calls for a public debate on vaccination rights.
• Predictions for 1988: The back cover features a call for readers to submit ten predictions for 1988, to be published and compared with those of 'big-time psychics' in the next issue, inviting readers to 'Test Your Psychic Ability!'.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The recurring themes in this issue are skepticism towards paranormal claims, the critical examination of media sensationalism (particularly The Sun's coverage of Uri Geller), and the debunking of supernatural anecdotes through logical analysis and scientific evidence. The magazine's stance is clearly that of a skeptic, aiming to expose fraud, gullibility, and the psychological underpinnings of belief in the paranormal. There is a strong emphasis on evidence-based reasoning and a critical approach to sensationalized stories, whether from newspapers, books, or alleged psychic phenomena. The publication actively encourages reader participation in testing psychic abilities, framed within a skeptical context.