REALL News - Vol 06 No 09 - 1998

Magazine Overview

This issue of The REALL News, Volume 6 Issue 9, published in November 1998, is titled 'Phrenology Considered' and is authored by Randy Alley. The magazine focuses on the history and nature of phrenology, a pseudoscience that was popular in the first half of the 19th century.

Phrenology: A Revolutionary 'Science'

The article introduces phrenology as a revolutionary 'science' that attracted thousands of converts and promised to elevate human development. It proposed that by understanding the size and shape of protuberances on the skull, one could analyze character and make adjustments to achieve personal desires. The core principle was that the brain was composed of organs that pressed upon the skull, and measuring these skull formations would reveal the size of the corresponding brain organs. A phrenological chart would then guide individuals on how to improve these organs through specific exercises, thereby advancing their lives and societal standing.

The Mechanics of Phrenology

Phrenology is described as a system that uses skull measurements to infer character traits. The brain was thought to be made up of distinct organs, each responsible for a specific faculty, sentiment, or propensity. The size of an organ was believed to be directly proportional to its vigor and function. Through exercise and stimulation, these brain organs could supposedly strengthen or atrophy. Phrenologists claimed that the skull's shape, with its indentations and protuberances, directly reflected the size and development of these underlying organs, allowing for their measurement and analysis.

Historical Development and Key Figures

Modern phrenology is attributed to German physician Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828), who developed his theory by observing patients at the Lunatic Asylum in Vienna and conducting autopsies. He identified 27 organs. His disciple, Dr. Johann Casper Spurzheim (1776-1832), expanded the theory, identifying 35 organs classified into propensities, sentiments, and intellect. The article notes that phrenology had historical precedents, with thinkers like Aristotle and Bishop of Ratisbon contributing to early ideas about brain function. However, Gall and Spurzheim are credited with systematizing the practice.

The Six Underlying Principles of Phrenology

The article outlines six key principles of phrenology:

1. The brain is the organ of the mind, and its health is crucial for its function.
2. The brain is composed of distinct organs, each with a specific faculty, sentiment, or propensity.
3. The vigor of an organ is proportional to its size.
4. The strength of a faculty in an individual is proportionate to the size of its organ relative to other organs in the same brain.
5. Brain organs increase in size and power through exercise or stimulation.
6. The relative size of brain organs can be ascertained by the shape of the skull.

Practical Application and Limitations

Phrenological exams involved measuring the skull with calipers and physical examination. Patients received charts with exercises to correct deficiencies or enhance traits. For example, a high score in 'alimentiveness' (appetite) suggested weight problems, with exercises focusing on mindful eating. The organ of 'individuality,' located between the eyebrows, related to observation skills. However, the article points out that the information provided by phrenologists was often common sense and offered no new insights. The exercises were simple and ineffective, and the knowledge gained was limited.

Critiques and Discrediting of Phrenology

The article details the scientific critiques that led to phrenology's downfall. Anatomists argued that no separate organs could be found upon dissection, and that the brain's protective layers (dura mater, pia mater, arachnoid granulations) prevented direct contact with the skull, making it impossible for the brain to shape the skull. Pierre Flourens' experiments demonstrated that the brain was a single organ with regions controlling different functions, and damage to one area did not result in total loss of function. Critics also pointed out that phrenology's idea of complementary organs was flawed, as organs are not interchangeable. Furthermore, phrenology's assertion that animals with similar organs should behave similarly was contradicted by observed differences in animal behavior, and its explanation for human behavior based solely on brain organs failed to account for social and philosophical influences.

Cultural Context and Legacy

Despite its scientific flaws, phrenology gained widespread popularity in the 19th century, aligning with cultural trends like expansionism, imperialism, and capitalism. It offered hope and a sense of control over self-improvement, particularly appealing in America where individualism was emphasized. Many prominent figures of the era, including Matthew Brady, P.T. Barnum, and Abraham Lincoln, were analyzed phrenologically, though some, like Mark Twain, approached it with skepticism. The article concludes that while phrenology gave people hope, it was ultimately revealed to be charlatanism and wishful thinking.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The recurring theme is the examination of phrenology as a historical pseudoscience. The article adopts a critical stance, presenting phrenology's principles and historical context while thoroughly detailing the scientific and logical arguments that led to its discrediting. The editorial stance is that of an objective historical analysis, highlighting the appeal and eventual failure of phrenology as a scientific endeavor. The article also serves as an introduction to a series on pseudosciences, with mesmerism to be discussed in the next issue.