North American BioFortean Review - Issue 11

Magazine Overview

Title: North American BioFortean Review
Issue Date: July 2003
Volume: 5
Issue Number: 2, Issue #11
Editor: Chad Arment

This issue of the North American BioFortean Review presents a diverse collection of articles focusing on cryptozoology, unusual natural phenomena, and historical accounts of the unexplained. The content spans a range of topics, from zoological curiosities and alleged cryptids to historical expeditions and scientific observations.

Featured Articles and Reports

BioFortean Notes: Science News Letter, 1930-1931

This section compiles several short reports from the Science News Letter during 1930-1931:

• Angleworm Big as Snake: Reports on the discovery of *Pheretima ophioides*, a new species of angleworm found in the Philippine mountains. These specimens were unusually large, described as being as big as a small snake, with bright blue coloration and pale yellow spots and bandings. They measured over a foot in length and nearly an inch in diameter.
• Man of Gardar: Discusses the discovery of an extraordinary skull in a medieval Christian cemetery at Gardar, Greenland. The skull exhibited characteristics of the Neanderthal race, leading to speculation about whether it represented a surviving Neanderthaloid type, a degenerate Eskimo, or a result of a growth disorder like acromegaly. Professor F. C. C. Hansen and Sir Arthur Keith were involved in its study.
• Butterfly Wings Take Own Pictures: Details a discovery by Austin Clark of the U.S. National Museum, who found that butterfly wings could photograph themselves in the dark. This effect was observed on photographic plates when butterfly wings were placed on them in a sealed box. The phenomenon was tentatively explained as being caused by invisible light waves or a gas, though experiments with quartz suggested the cause was still in doubt.
• Examine 37 Species: Further investigation into the butterfly wing phenomenon, examining 37 species. The anomaly was less apparent in older specimens. A reversibility of light spots was noted, and experiments with glass and cellophane indicated the effect could pass through cellophane but not glass, yet was blocked by quartz.
• Rabbits Adopted into Mule Deer Tribe: An unusual case of adoption at the Grand Canyon, Arizona, where two rabbits became integrated into a band of semi-tame mule deer, accompanying them on nightly excursions and bedding with them.
• Alaskan 'Prehistoric Animal' Declared Merely Whale: A supposed prehistoric animal found preserved in ice in Alaska was identified by Dr. Barnum Brown of the American Museum of Natural History as likely a whale, based on its flippers and skull dimensions.
• "Giant" Indian Skeletons Turn Out to Be Ordinary: An investigation into allegedly "giant" skeletons found in an ancient Indian burial ground near East St. Louis, Illinois, concluded they were ordinary burials. The apparent height increase was attributed to the lengthwise shifting of bones after the decay of connective tissues.
• First Known Hybrid of Elk and Moose is Killed: Reports the killing of a specimen in the Deerlodge National Forest, Montana, identified as a hybrid of an elk and a moose, possessing characteristics of both animals.
• Eagle Takes Bobcat for Aerial Ride and Drops Him: An account from Mesa Verde National Park where an eagle was observed to swoop down, grab a full-grown bobcat, carry it high into the air, and then drop it, resulting in the cat's death.

Discovery: The Five-horned Giraffe

This article details the discovery of a new mammalian genus, initially referred to as the 'Okapi' and later identified as a subspecies of giraffe. Professor E. Ray Lankester of the Natural History Museum received specimens from Sir Harry Johnston, collected in the Semliki forest. While initially thought to be related to *Helladotherium*, it was placed in a new genus. A postscript clarifies a misunderstanding: the 'five-horned giraffe' was a misinterpretation of a French translation of a description of the Okapi. Sir Harry Johnston later clarified that his expedition discovered a giraffe variety where males possess five horn cores, distinct from the Okapi. These specimens were found near Mount Elgon in the Uganda Protectorate. The article notes that this subspecies is now known as the rare Rothschild's Giraffe.

Rumors of an Unknown Vermont Lake Monster: The Lake Bomoseen Cryptid

This piece explores a rumor of a lake monster in Lake Bomoseen, Vermont. The story originates from an acquaintance of the author Gary S. Mangiacopra, who heard it from a former family-in-law member. The account describes a sighting of a 'giant eel' estimated to be longer than a 17-foot boat and 8-9 inches in diameter, seen in Lake Bomoseen around 1986. The authors discuss the location of Lake Bomoseen in Rutland County, Vermont, its dimensions, and its characteristics as a recreational area. They consider the possibility that the reported creature could be an exceptionally large American eel, noting that while the lake is near Lake Champlain (home to the cryptid 'Champ'), a direct relationship is considered unlikely. The report aims to bring this rumor to public attention for potential further investigation.

Report on the Remnant Skin of a Patagonian Ground Sloth

Edited from 'Through the Heart of Patagonia', this article details an expedition led by H. Hesketh Prichard concerning the discovery of remains of the Pampean Mylodon, or Giant Ground Sloth. Dr. F. P. Moreno's discovery of a piece of dried skin in Last Hope Inlet, Patagonia, in November 1897, attracted attention due to its remarkable state of preservation and the presence of incrusted bones resembling those of the Mylodon. The skin fragment was found in a cavern and was believed by locals to be from a large seal or a cow. Professor Ray Lankester commented on the possibility of the Mylodon still existing in remote Patagonian regions. The article includes Dr. Moreno's account of the discovery and a description of the remains by Dr. A. Smith Woodward.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The North American BioFortean Review consistently explores topics at the fringe of conventional science, including cryptozoology, unexplained animal sightings, and historical accounts of mysterious phenomena. The editorial stance appears to be one of open-minded investigation, encouraging the exploration of rumors and anecdotal evidence, even if they are initially unverified. The publication aims to document and present these accounts for further consideration and potential research, as evidenced by the detailed presentation of various reports and the call for further investigation into phenomena like the Lake Bomoseen cryptid.

This issue of the North American BioFortean Review, dated August 1898, focuses on the discovery and analysis of a unique skin specimen attributed to an extinct South American mammal, initially identified as *Neomylodon listai* and later as *Grypotherium listai*.

The Discovery of the Skin

The article begins by referencing a pamphlet by Señor Ameghino, which described the discovery of a living representative of the "Gravigrades" of Argentina, named *Neomylodon listai*. The author expresses suspicion that Ameghino may not have seen the skin itself but only some of its bones. The author's opinion is that the skin belongs to a genuine Pampean Mylodon preserved under peculiar circumstances, similar to those that preserved the Moa. The author notes that Pampean Edentates, now extinct, likely disappeared only in the "historical epoch" of America. In the province of Buenos Aires, remains of *Panochthus* and *Mylodon* have been found in humus, alongside polished stones and flints, suggesting human presence. In 1884, paintings in red ochre were discovered in a cavern near Rio de los Patos, one of which resembles a Glyptodon.

Ancient chroniclers and indigenous inhabitants mentioned a strange, huge hairy animal inhabiting the Cordillera. The Tehuelches and Gennakens spoke of such animals, and in 1875, cacique Sinchel pointed out a cave, called "Ellengassen," believed to be the lair of one of these monsters. However, the author notes that no Indians interviewed in Patagonia referred to animals that could account for the skin in question.

The Pampean Edentata likely existed as far south as the extreme limit of Patagonia. In 1874, remains of a pelvis of one of these animals were found in Pleistocene deposits in the bay of Santa Cruz, along with other mammals of the same formation, such as *Macrauchenia* and *Auchenia*. The preservation of the skin is attributed to the favourable conditions of the cave.

The state of preservation of the skin, while appearing fresh, is not an impossibility given the cave's conditions. The author recounts finding a mummified human body in a nearby cave in 1877, preserved under similar conditions, wrapped in Rhea skin and holding a Condor feather. Another cave yielded a painted tree trunk and figures on the rock face.

The mummy found in the La Plata Museum, though preserved, does not belong to current Patagonian tribes. Its skull resembles older races found in the Rio Negro valley. The Tehuelches considered these caves as abodes of "evil spirits" or attributed the painted figures to other ancient races.

These findings strengthen the opinion that the skin of a huge, long-extinct mammal could have been preserved. Further search in the cave floor is ongoing.

Description and Comparison of the Specimen (By A. Smith Woodward)

Description

The skin specimen, discovered by Dr. Moreno, measures approximately 0.48 m. along the main hair direction and 0.55 m. at its widest extent. It is irregular in shape and distorted by drying. The anterior portion is bent outwards. The skin has a dried, felt-like aspect with a ruddiness suggestive of blood-stains. The margin shows indications of dried serum. The outer face is covered with hair, except in certain regions where it may have been removed by abrasion. The inner face reveals a remarkable armour of small, irregularly arranged bony tubercles. An irregular rounded hole, possibly from a bullet or dagger, is present.

The skin's thickness varies, averaging 0.01 m. in the flattened portion (back), increasing to 0.015 m. in other areas. The thinnest portion is above B, and the skin was also thin near an accidental notch.

A notable feature is a rounded concavity in the margin above B, possibly the base of an ear-conch. The skin in this region and the cheek area (C) is more wrinkled. The outer aspect is covered with dense hair, except for the left anterior corner, which shows abrasion. A small patch of hair was pulled out near a gap. A hairless depression might be a healed wound.

The hair is of one kind, without under-fur, firmly implanted, and shows no signs of decay. It is of a uniform dirty yellowish or light yellowish-brown color, generally lying vertically, except at the upturned anterior corners. The longest hairs measure 0.05 m. to 0.065 m. Shorter hairs are found on the upper border and hinder border. The hairs on the supposed cheek are very short (0.01 m.). The hairs are stiff, straight, or slightly wavy, and tough. Microscopic examination shows a smooth cuticle and elongated cortex cells. Transverse sections reveal hairs that are almost or quite cylindrical, with no medulla.

The dermal ossicles are irregular but present everywhere, forming a compact armour. They are confined to the lower half of the dermis, with hairs implanted in the upper half. The ossicles are embedded in the dry tissue and only faintly visible from the inner surface. Their exposure is due to rupture and abrasion. No tendency to parallel arrangement is detected.

The largest ossicles measure approximately 0.015 m. by 0.010 m., but most are smaller. They are irregular in form, with a convex inner face and a slightly convex outer face. Microscopically, the tissue is traversed by interlacing connective-tissue fibres. Vascular canals are present, and the bony tissue exhibits abundant lacunæ, often arranged in Haversian systems.

Comparisons and General Conclusions

The skin's bony dermal armour distinguishes it from all known terrestrial Mammalia except certain Edentata. The ossicles are buried deeply in the dermis, unlike in Armadillos or Glyptodonts where they reach the outer surface. This specimen is unique among Edentates in this regard.

Comparisons with the extinct *Mylodon* and existing Armadillos suggest that the dermal armour of *Mylodon* might have varied in different body parts, or that the ossicles were uniform but differed in size and compactness, justifying the proposal of a distinct genus, *Neomylodon*.

The histological structure of the ossicles resembles that of *Mylodon* but differs in the radiation of connective tissue fibres and the disposition of bony tissue in Haversian systems. The *Neomylodon* ossicles appear intermediate between *Mylodon* and the existing Armadillo (*Dasypus*).

The hair characters are also compared. The skin lacks the under-fur of Sloths. The hair structure is strikingly different from Sloths and Anteaters but identical to that of surviving Armadillos. The author suggests that these hair characters might represent a special adaptation to the environment rather than a determinant of close affinities.

Regarding the antiquity of the skin, it appears remarkably fresh compared to Siberian Mammoth and New Zealand Moa remains. The presence of dried serum does not preclude significant age, as it can be preserved if protected from moisture. The author searched in vain for references to a problematic quadruped mentioned by Ramon Lista.

Difficulties exist in both hypotheses: if it belongs to *Mylodon*, it implies either a recent survival or unique preservation conditions; if it belongs to a distinct existing genus, it is strange it escaped detection. Professor Ray Lankester suggested it might be an unknown type of Armadillo.

Description of Additional Discoveries (By A. Smith Woodward)

Further excavations in a cavern in Southern Patagonia, led by Dr. Rudolph Hauthal, yielded more skin pieces and broken bones of a large Ground-Sloth, along with remains of an extinct horse and a large feline carnivore. Traces of fire were also found in the same deposits as the *Neomylodon* remains. The cavern, an old corral, suggested the Ground-Sloths were kept and fed by humans.

Dr. Moreno's explorations provided proof that the skin belonged to *Grypotherium*, a genus closely related to *Mylodon*, with known skulls from Pampean deposits. The collection supports the contention that the animal belonged to an extinct fauna contemporary with humans.

The preservation of the remains is remarkable, with some bones showing no indication of having been buried and retaining original gelatine. Many bones bear remnants of periosteum, muscles, ligaments, and cartilages. Very few bones are fossilized.

Dr. Roth's description of the collection recognized the generic identity of *Neomylodon* with *Grypotherium*. The author provides a more detailed examination of the specimens.

Remains of *Grypotherium listai*

Evidence of at least three individuals was recognized from fragmentary bones, differing in size. Three distinct occiputs, fragments of mandibles, and malar bones were found. One maxilla fragment might represent a fourth individual, and a humerus shaft suggests a smaller animal.

Skull and Mandible

The largest skull fragment shows fractures likely made when the animal was killed. The cranial roof near the occipital region is battered, and the occipital condyle was partly removed by a clean cut, indicating the animal was killed and dismembered by humans.

The skull is from an adult animal, with closed sutures. The inner wall of the temporal fossa is flattened and marked with ridges. The cranial roof has a median furrow. Fractures reveal large cancellated chambers surrounding the braincase. The basi-cranial axis is nearly straight. The anterior condyloid foramina are large. The basi-sphenoid is long and narrow. The pterygoids are inflated with large cancellæ.

The right maxilla is in a similar state of preservation, indicating a short facial region and a slightly convex nasal dome. The antero-superior angle curves upwards and forwards, ending in a point, characteristic of *Grypotherium*. Shattered bases of four teeth are present.

A fragment of the nasal region suggests the nasal bones extend forwards in a narrow arch, supporting the interpretation that they form the greater part of the bony arcade separating the narial openings.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The recurring themes in this issue are the discovery and scientific analysis of extinct megafauna, particularly South American Ground-Sloths. The articles highlight the importance of fossil evidence, the challenges of identification and classification, and the potential for interaction between extinct animals and early humans. The editorial stance appears to be one of rigorous scientific inquiry, presenting detailed descriptions and comparisons of specimens while acknowledging uncertainties and ongoing research.

This issue of the North American BioFortean Review, spanning pages 21-30, delves into the examination of fossil mammalian remains, primarily from Patagonia, and explores related indigenous legends. The content focuses on paleontological findings, anatomical descriptions, and the potential for survival of extinct species, alongside discussions of anomalous phenomena and historical accounts.

Fossil Mammalian Remains from Patagonia

Grypotherium and Glossotherium

The issue begins with a detailed description of three specimens of an extinct ground-sloth, likely Grypotherium, found in a Patagonian cavern. The skulls, mandibles, and other skeletal elements are meticulously described, noting their state of preservation, features of the cranium, and comparisons with known species. The generic name Grypotherium is affirmed, while Glossotherium is relegated to synonymy with Mylodon. The specific determination of the new specimens is discussed, with the suggestion of a new species, G. listai, based on differences from known species like G. darwini and G. bonaerense.

Cranial Cavity and Cerebral Nerves

An examination of the cranial cavity of Grypotherium No. 1, bisected to display its character, reveals well-developed olfactory lobes and cerebral hemispheres. A plaster cast highlights the exits of cranial nerves, particularly the optic and trigeminal nerves, and compares the brain's proportions to those of Mylodon, Scelidotherium, and Megatherium.

Auditory Ossicles

The auditory ossicles from Grypotherium skulls are described as closely similar to those of existing Sloths, especially Cholæpus didactylus, with notable differences in articulation and the presence of a diminutive lower facet on the malleus. These ossicles are contrasted with those of Myrmecophaga.

Vertebræ and Limb-Bones

Remains of vertebræ and limb-bones are noted to be in a similar state of preservation as the cranial material. The epidermal sheath of ungual phalanges suggests a peculiar twist of the manus, similar to Myrmecophaga, if the animal walked on its fore feet. The humerus shafts are described as having a more fossilized appearance and being deeply stained by ferruginous matter.

Skin and Hair

A new piece of skin, found in excrement, is described as being folded and having yellower hair than a previous specimen. Tool marks suggest it was stripped from the body by man. The skin measures approximately 1 meter by 93 centimeters. The disposition of ossicles within the skin is observed, showing a tendency towards regular, straight, parallel rows. The hair length varies, with longer hairs found detached. Microscopic examination of the hair indicates a smooth cuticle and absence of a medulla, distinguishing it from horse or guanaco hair.

Excrement

Large cylindrical pieces of excrement, referred to Grypotherium, are composed mainly of grasses and other plant matter, with some evidence of underground parts being pulled from the ground. The presence of sharply cut stems suggests human intervention, possibly indicating the animal was kept in captivity and fed by man.

Generic and Specific Determination

The teeth confirm the animal belongs to the family Mylodontidæ. The genus Grypotherium is established based on the forward production of nasals and ossification of the internarial septum. A comparison with Darwin's original specimen of Glossotherium suggests it is identical with Grypotherium darwini.

Associated Mammalian Remains

Remains of a large feline carnivore, possibly a variety of Felis onca, are described, including a humerus and metatarsals. These are compared to existing Felis onca and extinct Machærodus. Bones of the Jaguar (Felis onca) of ordinary dimensions have also been recorded from the Pampa formation.

Arctotherium

A remarkable large right femur fragment is provisionally associated with Arctotherium, an extinct bear. Comparisons with Arctotherium bonaerense suggest similarities in the trochlea and intertrochlear notch, indicating a species that may have survived into the human period.

Onohippidium saldiasi

Remains representing a horse, identified as Onohippidium saldiasi, include an upper molar, a fragment of premaxilla, and hoofs of a fetus or newborn. The molar's peculiar form distinguishes it from the genus Equus.

Large Extinct Rodent and Existing Species

A large rodent femur is compared with the extinct Megamys. Remains of a puma (Felis concolor) and a musteline (Lyncodon patagonicus) are also mentioned. Existing species like Ctenomys magellanicus and Lama huanacos are noted, as well as evidence of human presence through a diseased scapula and bone awls.

Relative Age of the Remains

The majority of mammalian remains belong to the extinct Pampean fauna, including Grypotherium, Onohippidium, Megamys, and Arctotherium. The deposits suggest two successive periods of introduction for the extinct and existing faunas, with Grypotherium remains found in a deeper layer of excrement and cut hay.

Chemical Analysis and Contemporaneity

The impossibility of testing the contemporaneity of bones via chemical analysis (fluorine content) is discussed due to the varied nature of the sediment in the Patagonian cavern, which prevented uniform chemical alteration.

Tehuelche Legends and Mysterious Animals

The 'Lemisch'

Dr. F. Ameghino's brother, Carlos, gathered tales from indigenous people about a mysterious beast named 'lemisch,' described as amphibious, nocturnal, and powerful. These stories were corroborated by the geographer Señor Ramon Lista, who claimed to have seen and fired at such a creature. Dr. Ameghino believed this represented a surviving relative of the Mylodon.

Interpretation of Legends

Winwood Reade's perspective on man's capacity to originate nothing and the need to sift truth from fable is cited. The author, Hesketh Prichard, investigated the Patagonian legends and found them to be largely imaginative exaggeration, with no direct evidence of a mysterious monster. The 'lemisch' is speculated to refer to some large species of otter, possibly Lutra brasiliensis, based on its amphibious nature and habitat.

Possible Survival of Mylodon

Extensive exploration in Patagonia yielded no evidence of the Mylodon's continued existence. The vast, unexplored forests are acknowledged as potential habitats, but the author concludes that the odds are heavily against survival, citing the absence of animal life in the deeper forest regions as presumptive evidence.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The issue consistently explores the intersection of paleontology, zoology, and folklore. It emphasizes rigorous scientific examination of fossil evidence while also acknowledging and investigating indigenous accounts of mysterious creatures. The editorial stance appears to be one of cautious scientific inquiry, open to exploring anomalous claims but grounded in empirical evidence. There is a recurring theme of human interaction with extinct fauna, evidenced by cut marks on bones and the presence of excrement and hay in the fossil deposits. The possibility of survival of extinct species is treated with skepticism but not entirely dismissed, leaving room for future discovery. The publication,

This issue of the North American BioFortean Review features an article titled "Monsters and Fabulous Animals" by W. Winwood Reade, edited from his work "Savage Africa, 1864." The article explores historical accounts of extraordinary and mythical creatures, primarily from Africa, emphasizing the importance of sifting truth from fable.

The Nature of Truth and Fable

Reade begins by asserting that man originates nothing, and that "lies are always truths embellished, distorted, or turned inside out." He posits that the duty of travelers and historians is to "sift and wash the gold-grains of truth from the dirt of fable." He notes that Africa, as described by ancient writers like Pliny and Herodotus, remains a land of mystery and romance. While some ancient myths have been reinterpreted as natural beings (e.g., men with dogs' heads as baboons, mermaids as sea-cows, and serpents as pythons), Reade suggests that many accounts still considered fabulous might be validated by future discoveries.

He advocates for a balanced approach, cautioning against both excessive incredulity and blind acceptance. Reade believes that "there is always a basis of truth to the most fantastic fables" and that rejecting the incredible without inquiry means discarding potential "jewels."

Curious Animals of Africa

The article then delves into specific examples of animals described by old authors as existing in Africa:

• A stone-headed animal: Described near Sierra Leone, with a stone in its forehead that provides light, which it covers with a film to prevent discovery upon hearing noise.
• A water-ox: Resembling a buffalo with hoofed feet, but amphibious like a hippopotamus.
• White monkeys: Often mentioned by early voyagers, possibly albinoes.
• Winged dragons: Reade considers the existence of such an animal improbable, though he notes the existence of the *draco volans*, a lizard with a membrane like a bat's wing.
• Flying squirrel: Stated to exist in Equatorial Africa, with Reade claiming to be the first to observe it there.
• Zebra-striped antelope: Said to exist in Central Africa.
• Sloth: Reade notes that the sloth, previously thought to be unique to the New World, also exists in Africa.

The Sloth (Potto)

Reade discusses the "entigiengio," a creature described by Barbot as slender-bodied, with a fine tail, living in trees and considered mortal if it touches the earth. It is said to have twenty attendants. This is compared to the "Potto," known to the Dutch as "sluggard," described by Artus of Dantzic and Bosman as a creature that moves very slowly, consuming fruit and leaves before moving to another tree. If unsuccessful in finding sustenance, it can die of hunger. Bosman describes the Potto as ugly, with a disproportionately large head and forefeet like hands. Its skin is described as smooth and mouse-colored when young, turning red and covered with hair like wool when old. A footnote indicates that specimens of these animals have been brought to England, identified as not true sloths but having lemur-like teeth.

The Roc and the Egg

Reade addresses the legendary roc from Marco Polo and "The Arabian Nights," stating its existence is now "proved by the discovery of an immense egg in a semi-fossil state in Madagascar." A cast of this egg is in the British Museum, suggesting a bird double the size of an ostrich. Father Lobo's account of Abyssinia also describes a similar bird, and Marco Polo claimed to have seen one of its feathers.

The Unicorn

The unicorn is presented as one of the most remarkable fabulous animals, with its existence still debated. Ancient descriptions compare it to a horse with a stag's head, distinct from the rhinoceros. The "unicorn-ass" is also mentioned, described as large, swift, and solitary, with a horn striped in white, black, and brown. Garcias, a 16th-century writer, reported Portuguese navigators seeing an animal with a horse's head and mane and a single movable horn between the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Corrientes. Sparmann and Barrow also saw representations of a one-horned animal in the same region. The unicorn is linked to the symbol of kingly power in Persia and Hebrew traditions, appearing on the monuments of Persepolis and British royal arms.

Dutch colonists affirmed seeing such animals, resembling the quagga, with the horn attached only to the skin. Merolla believed the real unicorn extinct, but Reade quotes other authorities. The "Congolans' abada" is mentioned, a unicorn with medicinal virtues. A Theatine missioner to the East Indies reportedly sought one but failed. Some Eastern people, particularly Chinese authorities, believed unicorns died on the same day as Christ, possibly alluding to their chastity.

Barthema (or Verdomanus) describes seeing two unicorns in Mecca in the 15th century: one like an eighteen-month-old colt with a three-span horn, and a smaller one with a four-cubit horn. These were gifts from a king of Ethiopia to the Sultan of Mecca. A Portuguese traveler in Abyssinia, quoted by Father Tellez, distinguishes between the unicorn and the abada. The unicorn is described as large as a fine horse, dark bay, with a white horn five palms long, living in woods and thickets. The abada has two crooked horns used as antidotes against poison. The unicorn is said to be found in the province of Agoa, kingdom of Damotes, in Africa. A missionary companion of the Portuguese traveler tried to obtain a young unicorn, but it died quickly.

A Portuguese captain recounted seeing a beautiful horse-like animal with a horn spring from the woods. Another account mentions people seeing this animal feeding among others in a stony, mountainous province, where exiles were sent. Adamas-Segued, a tyrannical emperor, sent Portuguese to observe a unicorn feeding in the plains. John Gabriel and the missionary companion affirmed seeing the animal, confirming its existence in the province.

Dr. Baikie, a recent traveler, had started an expedition for this animal, suggesting belief in its existence. Reade concludes that while the unicorn might be extinct, it is more probable that it has concealed itself in unexplored Central African forests.

Tailed Men

The article then shifts to the legend of "tailed men," which Reade notes are often dismissed by writers but for which he intends to collect evidence. He traces the origin of some such accounts to misinterpretations of monkey drawings, citing Blumenbach, Martini, and Linnæus.

• Ancient Accounts: The tailed men of antiquity are often identified as baboons, with the exception of a race described by Pausanias, who heard from a sailor named Euphemus about men on the "Islands of Satyrs" with tails "not much less than the tails of horses."
• European Mariners: Early European mariners in the East Indies frequently reported men with tails. Koepling claimed to have seen them in the Nicobar Islands. Barchewitz described a tailed girl in the Moluccas.
• Formosa and Philippines: Hesse (1680) described a woman with a short goat-like tail in Formosa. Strauss (1650) described a native with a foot-long, hairy tail in Formosa, whom he saw burnt alive. Gemelli Carreri and Le Gentil mentioned similar cases in the Philippines.
• Turkestan: Falk and Rytschkow reported that "kuirukli," or tailed people, are found in Turkestan with very slight caudal prolongations.
• Thibet: Captain Samuel Turner's embassy to Thibet (1806) recorded a report of human beings with short, straight, inflexible tails in the mountains north of Assam, which made sitting down difficult.
• Philippine Islands and Sumatra: Purchas wrote of men with tails like dogs (a span long) in the Philippines and people called "Daragui Dara" with sheep-like tails in Sumatra.
• Borneo: Harvey published an account from a surgeon who reported a tailed race in Borneo, including a girl with a thick, fleshy tail a span long.
• Africa: Recent accounts of tailed men in Africa are discussed. Egyptian monuments sometimes depict negroes with tails, often considered caricatures, but possibly suggested by reports of interior tribes.

M. de Castelnau's Expedition and Mahammah's Testimony

M. de Castelnau, who led a French expedition in South America, gathered information from intelligent negro slaves in Bahia. One slave, Mahammah, described the "Niam-Niams," or tailed men, whom he claimed to have seen. Despite Castelnau's initial skepticism, Mahammah and a dozen other negroes from Soudan corroborated the story. Castelnau later learned that another traveler had heard similar stories in Arabia, prompting him to publish his findings without asserting their reality.

Mahammah's account details an expedition by the Sultan of Kano against the Niam-Niams. The Haoussa army encountered these people, who had tails about forty centimeters long and two to three centimeters in diameter, without hair. Mahammah examined the bodies and found the existence of tails undeniable. The Niam-Niams lived in rock holes or straw huts, were skilled in warfare, and practiced cannibalism. They cultivated rice, maize, and other grains, and were described as fine men with woolly hair. The chief of the Niam-Niams asked for quarter, but the King of Kano reportedly killed them all because they had tails, assuming they would not be bought as slaves. They had unique oxen and large sheep and goats. The name "Niam-Niams" was also given to another cannibal tribe without tails.

Other Haoussa individuals also reported on tailed men: Karo described Niam-Niams wearing wooden ear ornaments and women wearing them in their lips, and stated they were cannibals. Mammaron heard of tailed men in the mountains. So Allah had seen children from the Niam-Niams with tails about the size of a finger. Mahammad heard of a new race of tailed savages discovered since he left his country fifty years prior. Griss witnessed cannibalism of the Niam-Niams but not those with tails. Neidassara, who served against the Niam-Niams, killed several who had tails. Children were born with tails about two inches long. He described adult tails as generally eighteen inches long and an inch and a half in diameter. These people were described as cannibals, and their tails had no movement. They used special seats with holes for the tails. The expedition brought back three Niam-Niams prisoners to Kano.

Reade notes that he is abstracting this evidence from "Renseignements sur l'Afrique Centrale, et sur une Nation d'hommes à queue, par Francis de Castelnau." He also mentions hearing rumors and trustworthy evidence during his visit to Western Africa.

• Hoofed Race: Natives of Equatorial Africa also assert the existence of a hoofed or cloven-footed race. Captain Lawlin traded for twenty years in the Camma country and believed such creatures existed in the interior.
• Heel-Forward People: At Ngumbi, Etia described a people who walked with their heels forward and toes backward, similar to the ancient "οπτοδοδακλυλοι" of India and people described by Humboldt in South America.
• Deer-Footed People: Etia also spoke of a people with feet like a deer, whom he had seen and who were treated with great reverence, believed to be under the protection of spirits.

Further Accounts of Tailed People

• Captain Neill: A trustworthy trader captain reported seeing a woman at Masarado, near Cape Palmas, with a short, hairless tail, described as a prolongation of the spine. Coast natives said she came from the Bush, where a tribe of them existed.
• Algeria: A sous-officier in Senegal mentioned that two of his comrades in Algeria had seen people with short, smooth tails.

Reade concludes that the existence of such a race is a question of pathology, suggesting that tails are external prolongations of the vertebral column. He notes that children have been born with tails, and that such traits can be perpetuated, citing the example of the "porcupine man" and his family.

• Kentish Tailed Men: Reade mentions that a tribe of tailed men once existed in Kent, England, becoming notorious as "homines caudati."

Historical References to Tailed Men

• Augustine's Miracle: The article recounts a story where Augustine, sent by Gregory the Great, was mocked by the vulgar in Rochester, who pinned fish tails on his garment or threw them at him. Augustine prayed that their children might be born with tails, a punishment confirmed by God.
• Thomas Becket: A story is told of Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, whose horse's tail was cut off by inhabitants of Stroud, near Rochester, leading to a tradition of men from Stroud having tails.
• Carrick Patrick Church: In Cashell, Ireland, during a siege, divers Irishmen among the slain were found to have tails about a quarter of a yard long. This was confirmed by forty soldiers who testified under oath.
• Spain: It is reported that another such tailed nation exists in Spain.

A Few Notes on Reade's Working Material

Chad Arment provides notes on some of Reade's quoted sources, including:

• Father Jerome Lobo's "A Voyage to Abyssinia": Translated by Samuel Johnson and available in print and etext.
• "Ehrman": Refers to Theophil Friedrich Ehrmann, a journalist who collected travel writings. His collections are primarily in German, and Reade's citation is not precise.
• Sir Thomas Browne's "Pseudodoxia Epidemica": Available online and in reprints, it mentions Garcias ab Horto's "Dell'Historia de i semplici aromati" and Lodovico Barthema Vartomannus' "Itinerario."
• Portuguese Padre Balthazar Tellez: Compiled traveler's reports into "Historia general de Ethiopia Alta."
• William Balfour Baikie: A Scottish explorer who wrote about languages and contributed to natural history books. His "Narrative of an Exploring Voyage up the Rivers Kwóra and Bínue" was published in 1854.

An American Dragon [North America: Pottery]

This section, authored by G. Elliot Smith and edited from "Man, No. 89, November 1918," discusses a peculiar Maya pottery object from Northern Honduras, obtained by Mr. Thomas Gann. The object, a hollow vessel, represents an alligator or crocodile with a human face protruding from its jaws. It is adorned with deer's antlers, elliptical and circular pieces of clay, and has measurements provided: maximum length 34.6 cm, breadth 20.3 cm, and height 13.3 cm.

Mr. Gann suggests it represents the Aztec Cipactli, a mythic animal symbolizing the earth. However, Smith posits that the human head belongs to the Rain God Chac (Tlaloc), and the animal form is his camouflage. The article notes that the "makara" in Japan, Indonesia, and India is a similar form, possibly a larval dragon. The American makara is described as having features of the Chinese and Japanese dragon, such as deer's antlers. The spotted decoration is highlighted, linking the elephant-headed god (Maya Chac, Aztec Tlaloc) to the Vedic god Indra.

The article further explores the connection between Indra, Soma, Varuna, Ea (Marduk), and Osiris (Horus). Soma, as the Moon god, has the antelope as his symbol, and the moon's spotted appearance is linked to the star-spangled sky. The Sanskrit name for a lunar mansion, "mriga-siras," means "deer-headed."

Dr. Gladys Davis's research is mentioned, suggesting the Phrygian Dionysos was derived from the early Aryan god Soma (Haoma). An Orphic fragment connects Dionysos to the star-aspect and the fawn-skin, symbolizing the star-strewn sky and his connection to the Sun.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The recurring themes in this issue revolve around the exploration of the unknown, the blending of myth and reality, and the critical examination of historical accounts of extraordinary beings. The magazine appears to adopt a stance of open-minded inquiry, encouraging readers to consider the possibility of truth in seemingly fabulous tales while maintaining a critical and investigative approach. The editorial stance is one of archival diligence, presenting evidence from various sources and historical periods to shed light on phenomena that lie outside conventional scientific understanding. The focus is on presenting documented accounts and historical records, allowing the reader to draw their own conclusions, rather than asserting definitive proof.

This issue of the North American BioFortean Review, spanning pages 41-48 and dated October 13, 1939, features a collection of articles exploring ancient myths, cryptozoological phenomena, and biological observations. The primary articles cover the mythological evolution of composite creatures, the mysterious 'Canyon of the Little Horses,' and the concept of the 'floating population of the air.'

The Evolution of Composite Monsters: From Makara to Dragon

The issue begins with an in-depth exploration of the mythological lineage of composite creatures, tracing their origins from Babylonian culture to various parts of the world. The article discusses Ea (Marduk)'s avatar, the 'goat-fish' or Capricornus, which became the Indian 'makara.' This creature assumed protean forms, including 'goat-fish,' 'tiger-fish,' and 'elephant-fish,' and became confused with the crocodile and the nâga. The identification of the crocodile with the antelope-fish explains the embellishment of the American makara with antelope spots. The makara is identified as the vehicle of Varuna, and the god himself was identified with the monster. The influence of Babylonian cults extended to Asia Minor and the Mediterranean, where the antelope of Ea was sometimes replaced by the deer of Dionysos and Artemis. The horns of the dragon, into which the 'goat-fish' developed, transformed from antelope to deer horns by the time the dragon reached China and Japan. This composite monster's journey is traced via the overland route to China and then to Indonesia, where it acquired deer's horns, and subsequently influenced American dragon depictions, showing a blend of Indian and Chinese modifications. Japanese dragon stories feature a crocodile-form creature called a 'wani,' which could be a hero's vehicle or a transformed being. The article cites M. W. de Visser's work on mythical crocodiles.

The discussion extends to the 'alligator group' of Chiriquian pottery, likely depicting *Crocodilus Americanus*, and its connection to the ancient Mexican 'cipactli.' The appearance of a long crest on these figures is suggested to be vestigial deer horns. Some Honduras specimens show a crocodile with a second head on its tail, consistent with Old World dragon construction. The author posits that the conventionalization of the Chiriquian crocodile involved blending Old World conceptions with locally developed designs and influences from abroad, including the makara.

Further, the article touches upon the widespread conception of the Great Mother as a water-pot, particularly in Egypt, the Mediterranean, Western Europe, India, Indonesia, Eastern Asia, and Oceania. This was blended with octopus symbolism, as seen in 'owl-shaped vases.' The confusion between the Egyptian moon-goddess and the Indian moon-god Soma is noted, with Soma represented as a golden bowl. The moon itself was seen as a bowl containing a rabbit, hare, or animal-shaped vessel. This Indian concept spread to China, where embroideries depict a hare pounding herbs, and to Mexico, where codices show a hare or rabbit pounding agave for pulque. The Mexican Pulque God is linked to the Indian Soma and Greek Dionysos, derived from the Vedic drink-god.

The article also examines the 'Mexican Saga' which explains the moon's diminished brightness by the gods flinging a rabbit at it. Similar legends exist among 'Sanskrit Indians,' Japanese, and Central Brazilian Indians. The Mexican god Xipe, associated with Hathor, is linked to the moon and food abundance. In Mexico and Egypt, the moon is represented as an eye or a bowl containing symbolic items. The author concludes that the mosaic of beliefs and ideas in ancient Maya and Aztec codices, featuring elements from India, Babylonia, and Egypt, points to a Pacific origin and the impress of Indian civilization.

Canyon of the Little Horses

This section, attributed to Jack Tooker and sourced from the San Francisco Examiner, February 25, 1940, details the discovery of a herd of exceptionally small horses in the Grand Canyon of northern Arizona. These 'Lilliputian horses' are descendants of normal Arabian stock imported by the Spaniards centuries ago. The story recounts how an Indian named Supai Smiley left three normal-sized horses in a canyon for safekeeping about 102 years prior. A fault slide destroyed the only trail, trapping the horses. Over generations, confinement, inbreeding, and environmental scarcity led to their stunted size. The author recounts his initial, secret visit, guided by Old Smiley, where he observed forty-one horses, many exhibiting peculiar physical traits like small bodies, large heads, long bodies, or short legs. He describes their shyness and agility. A subsequent trip, sixteen years after his first and nearly a year after Smiley's death, involved a more difficult descent. During this second visit, the author found evidence of mountain lion predation and managed to capture two horses, a black stallion and a four-year-old mare. However, the stallion escaped by sawing through a rope, and the author and his companions were trapped. They later discovered the carcasses of several horses at the bottom of the canyon, indicating they had jumped to their deaths.

BioForteana: The Floating Population of the Air

Authored by T. D. A. Cockerell of Boulder, Colorado, and published in Science, vol. 90, no. 2337, October 13, 1939, this article discusses the phenomenon of airborne insects and spiders. Cockerell's studies of islands off the coast of Southern California reveal that endemic insects are not necessarily isolated evolutionary developments but are largely maintained by a constant influx of flying insects and spiders from the mainland via air currents. He references P. A. Glick's work, which details collections made by aeroplane in Louisiana and Durango, Mexico. These studies show a significant number of insects and arachnids, including small wingless forms, being carried by air currents, even at altitudes over 5,000 feet. The article suggests that islands are constantly receiving these organisms, spores, and seeds, enabling environments to be populated. The author proposes that utilizing aeroplanes for scientific studies could provide more data on this 'floating population.' He also notes that the sea near coasts must be receiving a continuous 'rain' of small arthropods, serving as a food source for marine animals.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The North American BioFortean Review consistently explores the intersection of folklore, mythology, and unexplained natural phenomena. This issue demonstrates a clear editorial stance favoring comparative analysis of myths and legends across cultures, seeking common origins and evolutionary paths for symbols and stories. The 'Canyon of the Little Horses' article aligns with the journal's interest in cryptozoology and unusual biological occurrences, presenting a detailed personal account of an investigation. The 'BioForteana' section showcases the journal's commitment to documenting and analyzing biological curiosities and their ecological implications. The overall tone is scholarly and investigative, aiming to connect seemingly disparate phenomena through rigorous research and cross-cultural comparison.