North American BioFortean Review - Issue 05

Magazine Overview

Title: North American BioFortean Review
Issue: Vol. 2, no. 3, Issue #5
Date: December 2000
Publisher: Zoological Miscellania
Country: USA
Type: Free PDF-format newsletter

This issue of the North American BioFortean Review (NABR) concludes the year 2000 and looks forward to future developments in bioforteana. The editors express hope that the content is as intriguing as previous issues, featuring cryptozoological pieces, zoological folklore, hoaxes, and examinations of odd mysteries and geological features.

Editorial Direction and Future Plans

The editors, Chad Arment and Brad LaGrange, acknowledge their strong interest in North American biological mysteries but also express a desire to expand their focus globally. They plan to include articles on biological mysteries from every geographic region, while still emphasizing North America's strange wildlife. They anticipate contributions from writers in Europe and other countries. A significant change announced is the merger of NABR with the newsletter CRYPTO, edited by Craig Heinselman, who will join NABR as an editor, bringing a new perspective and talents.

Fair Usage and Distribution Policy

The newsletter adheres to a Fair Usage Policy for images, using them for criticism, comment, education, and research under Title 17 of the U.S. Code. NABR is distributed electronically as a free PDF from the Zoological Miscellania website (www.herper.com). Print copies are not provided, but readers are encouraged to share the URL or electronic copies.

Featured Articles and Content

Black Panthers in Perry County, Indiana by Brad LaGrange:
This article discusses the folkloric position of black panthers in Perry County, Indiana, noting several reliable witness sightings over the years, though much local lore revolves around teenage "panther scares." A specific case from around 1978 involving a farmer named James is detailed. James and a friend attempted to hunt a panther that was causing concern, though no livestock were killed. The friend shot at the animal, but it escaped wounded. The next day, buzzards were seen circling, leading them to believe the panther had died. The animal was described as a cat about 5-6 feet long, sleek, black, with a long tail held low. The author notes the reluctance of witnesses to report such sightings to authorities for fear of government intervention and potential restrictions on land use.

Our Worst Snake (Reprint) by Charles Fletcher Lummis:
This reprinted piece from 1897 describes the venomous creatures of the American Southwest. Lummis details encounters with rattlesnakes, including the sidewinder, and the commonness of tarantulas and scorpions. He recounts a startling incident in 1890 where a large centipede, not a mouse, was caught in a trap. The article emphasizes that while the Southwest has dangerous creatures, people are more likely to be injured by mundane accidents like slipping on sidewalks. Lummis then focuses on the "pichu-cuate," a tiny, highly venomous, and treacherous snake he considers the deadliest in North America, comparing it to the worst serpents of India. He describes his own encounter with one in Valencia County, New Mexico, in June 1889, where his horse, Alazan, reacted violently. Lummis killed the snake, describing its appearance and the potent nature of its venom. He discusses how the pichu-cuate is accursed even among Pueblo people, who revere rattlesnakes, and recounts tales of its fatal bites, including that of Cruz Abeita.

Notes on Lummis' Pichu-Cuate by Chad Arment:
Chad Arment analyzes Lummis' description of the pichu-cuate. He notes that no snake matching Lummis' description is currently recognized in New Mexico or Arizona, where only rattlesnakes and coral snakes are found. The name "pichu-cuate" appears to be a generic term for venomous snakes in folklore. Arment explores potential identifications, including the cantil (*Agkistrodon bilineatus*) and *Trimorphodon tau*, but finds them inconsistent with Lummis' description, particularly the supraocular horns. He suggests *Ophyracus undulatus* or *Porthidium melanurum* from Mexico as possibilities due to the horns, but geographical range is an issue. Arment concludes that either *O. undulatus* once had a broader range, or an undescribed species related to *Ophyracus* existed in the area.

Bipedal Lizards in North America: An Additional Report by Chad Arment:
This article presents accounts of bipedal lizards from Vancouver Island and Texada Island in British Columbia, Canada. It references an article from the British Columbia Scientific Cryptozoology Club Quarterly. One account describes lizards running on hind legs about 12 inches high, encountered by a woman's father while blasting for a railway. Another report from Texada Island mentions a logging crew abandoning work due to encountering these lizards. The author discusses the possibility of these being a range expansion of the western fence lizard (*Sceloporus sp.*), but dismisses it due to the size and locomotion described. The article recommends the BCSCC as an organization.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The recurring themes in this issue revolve around cryptozoology, zoological folklore, and unexplained biological phenomena. The magazine demonstrates a commitment to investigating reports of unusual creatures, whether they be mythical beasts like the Loch Ness Monster and giant octopuses, cryptids like black panthers, or venomous and mysterious snakes and lizards. The editorial stance is one of open inquiry, presenting detailed accounts and analyses while acknowledging the challenges of verification and the role of folklore. The expansion of focus to global biofortean mysteries indicates a desire to broaden the scope of research and attract a wider range of contributors and topics.

This issue of the magazine, titled "Just when it seemed safe to go snorkeling: Hawaii's Giant Octopuses," by Nick Sucik, delves into the intriguing world of large cephalopods and other cryptozoological phenomena. The content primarily focuses on reported sightings and folklore surrounding giant octopuses, with a significant emphasis on Hawaii.

Hawaii's Giant Octopuses

The article begins by establishing the known record for the giant Pacific octopus, *Octopus dofleini*, citing a 1957 specimen weighing 600 lbs. with a 31-foot arm span. It then explores the possibility of undiscovered species, drawing a parallel to the giant squid *Architeuthis*. The text references the 1896 St. Augustine, Florida, case of a 5-ton octopus corpse and the Atlantic 'lusca,' a creature described by Andros Island fishermen as reaching 60 feet or more. The author notes that the Atlantic specimen might be related to the *Cirroteuthis* family, citing Verrill's observations of fin-like stumps and Raynal's comparison of cirri to hair, which could explain the name 'him of hairy hands.'

The author distinguishes Hawaiian sightings, which occur in shallow waters, from the deeper habitats of the Atlantic *lusca*. He cautions against conflating similar-sounding descriptions of different cryptids, using the example of lake monsters.

Hawaiian Sightings and Folklore

Nick Sucik recounts his personal discovery of giant octopus reports in Hawaii through newspaper archives while stationed there for the military. He found Hawaiian folklore mentioning a "giant eel" and stories of giant octopodes, including one where a hero pins down a beast with a boulder. He highlights two specific sightings from the *Honolulu Advertiser*.

#### Madison Rigdon's Sighting (1950)

Madison Rigdon, an 80-year-old fisherman from Wahiawa, reported an encounter in 1950 off Makaha, Hawaii. He described seeing a dark, grayish-brown object in shallow water, about 200 yards offshore, initially mistaken for wreckage. The object was circled by at least a dozen tiger sharks, estimated to be up to 20 feet long. Rigdon observed a tentacle, estimated at 30 feet long, block a shark. He later saw another tentacle, 30 feet long, raised into the air. The octopus then released a cloud of ink and disappeared. The encounter occurred in a bay formed by Lahilahi Peninsula, in water about 30 feet deep.

#### Val Ako's Sighting (1950)

Val Ako, a retired fisherman from Kauai, reported a larger octopus sighting in 1950 off the Kona Coast. While fishing with a Navy commander, Ako saw a creature on a reef with a head as big as their 28-foot boat. He described a tentacle 75 feet long with suckers as big as auto tires. The octopus was unresponsive when they attempted to anchor near it. Ako's *kupuna* (elder) told him the octopus was a family guardian spirit, and that it and a mate visited annually.

Robert Todd Aiken's Claim (1936)

The issue also revisits a 1936 front-page story from the *Honolulu Advertiser* about Robert Todd Aiken, who claimed to have found a colony of six giant octopuses near Pearl Harbor, with one specimen measuring 40 feet from tip to tip. Aiken intended to use these octopuses for a motion picture. The article notes that the story received significant attention but lacked a follow-up, possibly due to the looming threat of World War II. The image accompanying the article, found on microfilm, was fuzzy, but showed Aiken near a large octopus, suggesting it was not a simple cut-and-paste job. The author speculates if the octopus was a movie prop.

Crypto-varmints: Unusual Small Mammals

The latter part of the magazine shifts focus to smaller, less-publicized cryptids.

An Unusual Small Mammal in Montana

A report from Northwest Montana describes a woman's dog killing an unusual mammal that had been killing chickens. The animal was described as viverrid-like, mongoose-like but with longer legs and feline features, soft fur, and rounded paws. It was about the size of a 6-month-old house cat. The animal smelled musky and of a dead thing. The area is described as wilderness below Flathead Lake. The author notes that North America has no known viverrid species, and mongooses are illegal to import, suggesting it might be a mustelid or a new species.

Hairless Beast in Wisconsin

An account from the "Wierd Wisconsin" website describes a strange hairless critter, about 2 feet long with a nine-inch tail, attacking a dog in Hillsboro, Wisconsin. The Department of Natural Resources suggested it was a misidentified raccoon, but the article raises the possibility of a genetic mutation causing hairlessness, similar to reports from Kentucky.

The Crawford Critter or “King Squirrel” in Indiana

A man named "Syrus" reported seeing a mysterious animal in Crawford County, Indiana, interacting with squirrels. The creature was described as larger than the squirrels, mongoose-like, with dark coloration, and a look resembling a mongoose or mink, but not fitting those descriptions. The squirrels accepted it, suggesting it was not a predator. The author notes the area is suitable habitat for various wildlife and cryptids.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The recurring theme throughout the issue is the exploration of the unknown, whether it be colossal marine life or elusive terrestrial creatures. The magazine adopts an investigative stance, presenting eyewitness accounts, folklore, and scientific perspectives. While acknowledging the possibility of misidentification or exaggeration, the articles encourage further research and consideration of these phenomena. The editorial stance appears to be one of open-minded curiosity towards cryptozoology, presenting cases that challenge conventional understanding of the natural world.

This document is an article titled "Indian Pony Mystery" by Yuri Kuchinsky. It delves into the controversial topic of the presence of horses in the Americas before the arrival of Christopher Columbus, challenging conventional historical and archaeological narratives.

The Conventional View and Its Problems

The article begins by stating that many fundamental "truths" about American history, particularly concerning the horse, are not as solid as commonly believed. The author posits that the conventional understanding of the horse's history in America has significant gaps, making it ripe for re-evaluation. The central thesis is that horses were in America well before Columbus, brought from Asia along with Asian horse-breeding and keeping practices.

The prevailing assumption among historians is that no horses existed in America before Columbus, except for those that went extinct early on. This view is largely based on the belief that horses first arrived with Cortes in Mexico in 1519. However, the author points out that very few professional historians have investigated this subject firsthand, relying instead on this received assumption. This view faces substantial problems, particularly concerning the chronology of when North American tribes acquired horses.

The Timing of Horse Acquisition

Many Native Americans maintain that they were riding and breeding horses centuries before the Spanish arrived, but their tribal memories are often dismissed by mainstream scholars. The article highlights the difficulty in establishing a clear timeline for when different tribes acquired horses. Frank Gilbert Roe, a significant authority on the subject, admits in his book "The Indian and the Horse" that it is mortifying how little is definitively known, with periods of thirty to fifty years often requiring conjecture and balancing probabilities.

Early European visitors to western USA and Canada often encountered Native Americans who already possessed horses. For instance, an account from 1754 by Antony Henday describes the Sarcee, Blackfoot, and their allies as being "well supplied" with horses. This declaration was initially met with skepticism but was later vindicated. The author notes that these early observers often remarked that these "horse Indians" were already experts in breeding and keeping horses, raising questions about how they acquired this expertise so quickly.

Roe's investigation suggests that many tribes may have had horses before 1600, a view supported by Walter Prescott Webb. While mainstream historians cite Coronado's expedition in 1541 as the earliest arrival, Roe dismisses the idea that Native Americans acquired horses as strays from Spanish expeditions, noting that the Spanish typically kept mares for breeding and only sent stallions or geldings on dangerous journeys.

What Type of Horse?

The article then explores the type of horse the Native Americans possessed. The "Indian pony" is described as very different from typical Spanish horses of the early colonial era. Key distinctions include its color (pinto or piebald), smaller size, and a characteristic "hang-dog appearance." The origin of this distinct pony is surprisingly obscure, with little literature available. The irregular pinto color was prized by Native Americans but despised by the Spanish and British, who, along with the Portuguese, may have inherited this dislike from the Arabs, for whom spotted horses were rare.

Spanish horses of the early colonial times are described as the semi-Arab "breed of Cordoba," or the "Andalusian horse." The prejudice against pintos persisted among white Americans in the Old West, with quotes from Wyatt Earp suggesting a lack of utility for paint horses.

In the Northern Plains, the Indian pony is typically a pinto. The author concludes that Native Americans likely did not get their horses from the Spanish and probably had them even before the Spanish arrived, with supporting evidence for this claim.

Anthropological Evidence

The article presents anthropological evidence suggesting non-Spanish origins for Native American horse culture. The ways in which Plains Indians (Sioux, Cherokee, Cheyenne, Dakota) bred, kept, and rode horses involved rituals that were clearly non-European and non-Spanish but resembled Asian practices. Examples include the Blackfoot slaying horses to accompany a chief to the afterlife, a practice mirrored in Mongol burials. The veneration of sacred Horse Bundles, particularly the horse skull, by tribes like the Assinaboin and Hidatsa, also has parallels with Mongol ritual practices.

Both American Indians and Mongols were accomplished at archery from horseback, a skill not common among the Spanish. Furthermore, Native Americans rode horses without saddles, unlike the Spanish. Research by Gala Argent on the Nez Perce indicates their horse breeding practices, gelding methods, and associated rituals are suspiciously Asian in character, as are their methods of capturing, pasturing, and stealing horses.

The author finds it absurd to suggest that Native Americans developed such a sophisticated horse culture independently in a few decades. Instead, this points to non-Christian Asian practices influencing Native American customs associated with the horse, suggesting this is also where they obtained their horses.

The article also touches upon the possibility of transoceanic contact with America in ancient times, noting that this area of research is often neglected by mainstream scholars. The hypothesis is that American Indians had horses for centuries before the Spanish, acquired them from the West Coast, and that these horses originated from Asia.

Roe notes that tribes in the northerly regions west of the Rocky Mountains were among the earliest to possess horses in large quantities, placing them geographically closer to Asia. An alternative hypothesis suggests horses might have arrived from the East with the Vikings, as horses were present in Greenland, and the type of horse in Greenland was similar to Asian horses. The author entertains the possibility of horses arriving from both the West and the East.

Francis D. Haines is cited regarding the Appaloosa horse, noting its ancestors' similarity to horses found across a vast Eurasian territory from China to the Adriatic. This reinforces the idea that the horse in America was a very non-Spanish type.

Another hypothesis is that the native American horse never went extinct and survived in ecological niches.

Archaeological Evidence

The article presents archaeological evidence supporting the pre-Columbian presence of horses. The famous Wisconsin horse skull, excavated in 1936 from a mound on Spencer Lake, was dated by associated materials to 800-900 CE. Although the skull itself was not dated, its context suggests it is pre-Columbian. A questionable "confession" from an unnamed archaeologist about planting a skull is discussed but deemed irrelevant to the skull's legitimacy.

Pre-Columbian horse remains have also been found in Yucatan, Mexico, showing no signs of fossilization, indicating they are relatively recent. In 1957, Mayapan yielded horse remains considered pre-Columbian based on burial depth and mineralization. A preliminary note on this finding received little detailed treatment.

The Illinois State Museum FAUNMAP DATABASE revealed 13 archaeological sites with Late Holocene horse remains in North America, mostly in the States, and four sites with Middle Holocene remains. While this is raw data, it indicates late pre-Columbian horse remains from professionally conducted excavations.

Gloria Farley's book "In Plain Sight" includes a photograph of a horse statuette found near the Chattahoochee River, which Dr. Joseph B. Mahan noted were found in Alabama sites thought to be older than the sixteenth century. These small sculpted horses were initially disregarded due to the prevailing belief that no horses existed before 1540.

Farley's book also covers American petroglyphs, including 29 illustrations of horse petroglyphs, many of which appear pre-Columbian, with some showing similarities to Old World petroglyphs or statues.

Can the Prevailing Paradigm Change?

The author suggests that a breakthrough in understanding the pre-Columbian horse might come from DNA evidence, comparing Indian Ponies with Old World horses. Some work in this area is reportedly underway and showing promising results.

Another potential area for a breakthrough is radio-carbon dating of known pre-Columbian American horse remains. Rumors of such tests being conducted by archaeologists associated with the FARMS Foundation of Brigham Young University (linked to the Mormon Church) have surfaced, possibly due to the mention of horses in the Book of Mormon. The author notes the lack of published results is concerning.

The author expresses that positive evidence would not be surprising, given the existence of a securely dated pre-Columbian horse skull in Wisconsin and possible remains in Yucatan. The delay in radio-carbon dating these specimens is questioned.

How Could They All Be So Wrong?

The article addresses why scientists, archaeologists, anthropologists, and historians might have missed the evidence for pre-Columbian horses. The author attributes this to a reluctance to accept evidence of pre-Columbian cultural contact, citing a parallel case with research on the American domestic chicken, where evidence points to a pre-Hispanic arrival from Asia.

A new book edited by Prof. George Carter, a proponent of transoceanic contact research, reportedly contains archaeological evidence of pre-Columbian chicken bones but is struggling to find a publisher, which the author suggests speaks for itself. The author describes these as "blind spots" of professional archaeologists who employ "methods of denial and avoidance" when faced with inconvenient historical realities.

A counter-argument from skeptics is that since Cortes brought horses in 1519 and large numbers were available by the 1540s, Native Americans would have quickly adopted them, becoming expert horsemen rapidly. The author finds this ironic, as these same "anti-diffusionists" often deny cultural diffusion from other contacts, such as the Vikings. The rapid spread of horses among Native Americans is questioned if they had no prior contact or knowledge.

The author criticizes the idea that culturally conservative Indians could magically transform into expert horse breeders and riders within a few generations, and that the horse itself magically transformed from a Spanish Barb to a Cayuse Pony or Appaloosa. The notion that they acquired expertise from Asia "psychically" is dismissed as a "likely story."

Conclusion

The author's conclusion is that the most likely scenario is that Asian travelers arrived on the West Coast of America possibly 2000 years ago, bringing horses. These visitors may have stayed and taught the locals their horse-keeping ways. The horse then spread, eventually reaching the Great Plains. The author suggests that Europeans, finding the Aztecs without horses, concluded that no one in the New World had them, leading to further evidence being coerced into fitting this preconception.

Additionally, a similar horse may have arrived from the East across the Atlantic, though evidence for this is sparser. The author believes this is the only logical way to explain the available evidence.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The recurring themes include the questioning of established historical narratives, the significance of overlooked or dismissed evidence (oral traditions, archaeological finds), the distinctiveness of the "Indian pony" compared to Spanish horses, and the potential for transoceanic contact to explain cultural diffusion. The editorial stance is one of skepticism towards conventional explanations and a strong advocacy for re-examining the evidence for pre-Columbian horses in the Americas, particularly those of Asian origin.

This issue of Ancient American, dated July/August 1996, contains a bibliography and several articles on various historical and cryptozoological topics. The content spans discussions on the introduction of horses to America, unusual aquatic life, and reports of cryptids and giant snakes.

Bibliography

The bibliography lists several sources related to the introduction of horses to America, including works by A. J. Clemens, Henriette Mertz, Stan Steiner, Robert W. Howard, and Edward Payson Vining. These sources explore possibilities such as Viking introduction and Chinese exploration. It also references works by Robert Moorman Denhardt and Frances D. Haines concerning horses in the Americas, and Walter Prescott Webb and Clark Wissler on the influence of the horse.

Hot Water Fish (Reprint)

This section, a reprint from the Territorial Enterprise dated February 19, 1876, details a peculiar discovery in the Savage mine. Miners found five living, eyeless, blood-red fish, about three to four inches long, in water heated to 128 degrees Fahrenheit. The fish died almost instantly when removed to colder water. The discovery suggests a tapped subterranean reservoir or lake. The article notes that while eyeless fish are found in caves, they are rarely found in such high water temperatures.

Two Gulf Cryptids?

Authored by Brad LaGrange, this article discusses two cryptid encounters in the Gulf region. The first is a potential bioluminescent sea creature or USO sighting off the Pascagoula River on November 6, 1973. Two fishermen observed a shiny, stainless steel object with an amber light, approximately three feet long. The object exhibited animal-like behavior, evading attempts to subdue it. The author suggests it might be a living animal rather than a man-made object. The second incident occurred in June 1998, where Mayra Chaviano and her children were reportedly attacked by a long-shaped marine animal near the Guaurabo River in Cuba, resulting in paralysis.

A Different Look: The Honey Island Swamp Monster

Also by Brad LaGrange, this article examines the Honey Island Swamp Monster. Contrary to typical sasquatch descriptions, evidence suggests a baboon-like, sometimes-quadrupedal animal. The initial report from Harlan Ford in 1963 described a large animal on all fours with grayish hair. Subsequent investigations in 1974 found evidence of a large animal killing boars, with tracks suggesting a primate and alligator combination. The article also references local traditions of 'Little Red Men' in Mississippi and notes the creature's potential aquatic nature. It posits the existence of a rarely discussed cryptid in the United States, possibly related to other arboreal or semi-aquatic cryptid reports.

Giant Snakes in Pennsylvania

Authored by Chad Arment, this section compiles folklore and sightings of giant snakes in Pennsylvania. It categorizes these into "typical" giant snakes and giant rattlesnakes, noting that Pennsylvania tales are predominantly terrestrial, unlike surrounding states where they are often aquatic. The article details legends such as "Log Snakes" in the Poconos and "Boss Snakes" from southeastern Pennsylvania, including a report of a 14-foot 3-inch shed skin. It also discusses the historical naming of "Devil's Den" in Gettysburg, attributed to a large snake. Numerous sightings from the 1800s to the 1990s are listed, with descriptions of size, color, and behavior. The "Characteristics" section attempts to build a cryptozoological profile, estimating lengths of 15-20 feet and noting a dirty tan to dark gray coloration. The author suggests that known species like the black rat snake and black racer might be candidates, though the reported sizes exceed typical measurements. The article also debunks the notion that snakes "gray" with age.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The recurring themes in this issue revolve around the exploration of historical mysteries, unexplained phenomena, and cryptozoology. The editorial stance appears to be one of open inquiry into these subjects, presenting various accounts and theories without necessarily endorsing them as definitive fact. The articles encourage further research and feedback from readers, indicating a collaborative approach to understanding these enigmatic topics.

The Cryptozoology Review, Vol. 2, No. 2, published in Spring 2000, is a magazine dedicated to the investigation of unexplained animal phenomena. This issue features articles on potential large snakes in Pennsylvania and reports of octopuses in freshwater rivers.

Candidates for Pennsylvania Giants

This article, authored by Chad Arment, explores the possibility of large, undiscovered snake species in Pennsylvania. The author dismisses the black racer due to size and coloration discrepancies. While acknowledging the improbability of a completely unknown genus of boid in Pennsylvania, the focus shifts to colubrids, noting that while new genera are unlikely north of Mexico, closely allied species are possible. The article cites maximum lengths of known large North American colubrids such as *Pituophis catenifer sayi* (2743 mm), *Drymarchon corais couperi* (2629 mm), and *Masticophis f. flagellum* (approx. 2591 mm), and compares them to larger Asian species like *Zaocys carinatus* (4000 mm) and *Ptyas mucosus* (3700 mm), establishing a biological precedent for colubrids exceeding thirteen feet.

The primary candidate proposed is the genus *Pituophis*, specifically the Pine Snake (*P. melanoleucus*). The genus is known for its variability in coloration and pattern. The bullsnake (*P. c. sayi*) is the largest, found in the Midwest, while pine snakes (*P. m. melanoleucus* and *P. m. mugitus*) are found further east. These snakes are terrestrial and consume small mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects. A key characteristic of *Pituophis* is its tendency to be found in small, disjunct populations in the east, with known groups in Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia/West Virginia, and New Jersey. While biologists once suggested *Pituophis* might exist in Pennsylvania due to proximity, no confirmed discovery has been made. However, a late Pleistocene site in Bedford County, Pennsylvania, did yield remains of an undetermined *Pituophis* subspecies. A large subspecies of *Pituophis* could potentially account for the reports, fitting the description of a large terrestrial colubrid adaptable to various habitats, including rocky terrain with caves and burrows. Its defensive behavior of puffing up with air to appear larger is also noted. The main obstacle to this theory is the lack of juvenile or sub-adult *Pituophis* specimens found in Pennsylvania, although the state's herpetofauna is not as well-studied as others. The author suggests that if *Pituophis* exists in Pennsylvania, it is likely limited to Huntingdon and surrounding counties, possibly having had a wider range historically. The article concludes by urging investigators to keep an eye out for any unusual snakes, as they might be juveniles of a new species for the state.

Corals and Kings: Reports of an Unrecognized Snake in Ohio

Authored by Chad Arment, this article examines reports of coral snakes and scarlet kingsnakes in Ohio, areas where they are not officially recognized as native. The author reviews two disputed museum records of *Micrurus fulvius* (coral snake) in Ohio from the late 19th and mid-20th centuries, suggesting they were likely accidental releases. The core of the article focuses on numerous eyewitness accounts from visitors to Arment's website who reported seeing small, brightly banded snakes resembling coral snakes or scarlet kingsnakes. These sightings occurred in various locations across Ohio, including Delaware, Highland County, Mt. Gilead, Guernsey County, and Mentor. Many of the witnesses were experienced snake enthusiasts who were confident in their observations. The article discusses potential explanations, including eastern milksnakes (*Lampropeltis triangulum triangulum*) with high red coloration and scarlet kingsnakes (*Lampropeltis triangulum elapsoides*), which are known to exist just across the Kentucky border. The author notes that while milksnakes can mimic some aspects, the pattern is usually distinct from coral snakes. The article presents five detailed accounts from individuals who encountered these snakes, some of whom have dedicated years to researching the phenomenon. One account from Mentor describes seeing two snakes with incredibly colored bands, possibly kingsnakes, despite their location far north of the Kentucky border. Another account from Cincinnati describes a brightly banded snake seen 27 years prior. The article concludes that while *L. t. elapsoides* might be present in Ohio, definitive proof requires a specimen.

A Freshwater Octopus?

This article, co-authored by Chad Arment and Brad LaGrange, investigates sporadic reports of mystery aquatic animals in the Ohio River and its tributaries, suggesting the possibility of an undescribed invertebrate. Two main hypotheses are presented: Hall's (1991) suggestion of a eurypterid (sea scorpion) and Shuker's (1995) consideration of a freshwater octopus. The article reviews several aquatic animal reports.

1. A report from December 26, 1933, in the Richmond Times-Dispatch, details an octopus pulled from the Kanawha River near Charleston, West Virginia. It measured three feet from head to the end of its longest tentacle. Explanations considered include a hoax or an out-of-place-animal incident.
2. An undated Pittsburgh Press article mentions an octopus captured alive in a creek near Grafton, West Virginia, with tentacles up to two feet long. The date is estimated to be around 1954.
3. On January 30, 1959, an octopus-like creature was seen on the bank of the Licking River in Covington, Kentucky, described as gray with a lopsided chest and ugly tentacles.
4. A similar octopus-like creature was seen in the Ohio River near Fort Thomas during the same period.
5. An issue of Fate Magazine reported an octopus found on the fossil beds of The Falls Of The Ohio State Park on November 21, 1999. Paul McLean provided a photograph of the specimen, which was not alive, weighed less than a pound, and was identified as an Atlantic octopus.

The article then delves into why freshwater octopuses are not expected. It is well-documented that all known cephalopods are marine. While some molluscs have adapted to freshwater, cephalopods typically require specific salinity levels. John W. Forsythe, a Research Scientist at the National Resource Center for Cephalopods, examined the photograph from the Ohio River find and suggested it might be *Octopus burryi* or *Octopus filosus*, both marine species found in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico. The article discusses the adaptation of some molluscs to brackish and freshwater environments, contrasting them with cephalopods' limited tolerance for low salinity. Forsythe noted that most octopus and cuttlefish species struggle with salinities below 20-25 parts per thousand.

Alternative explanations for the sightings are explored. The first is the occasional release of octopuses from marine aquaria into freshwater systems, which would likely result in their death. The second alternative involves peculiar behavior among cephalopods nearing death, a stage called 'senescence,' where they may 'wander around.' However, the harsh freshwater environment and the distance from the ocean make this explanation unlikely. The third, least likely idea, is that a certain species of cephalopod has adapted to freshwater environments.

Product Review: NAPE Track Replica

This section reviews a cryptozoological artifact: a replica of the 1962 Decatur, Illinois, 'North American Ape' track, created by Zack Clothier. The replica is based on a photograph taken by Loren Coleman. The review highlights Clothier's expertise in tracking and his creation of various track reproductions. It suggests that this replica serves as a reminder that not all 'hairy ape' reports should be treated the same.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The magazine consistently adopts an investigative and evidence-based approach to cryptozoological claims. It presents eyewitness accounts alongside scientific analysis and expert opinions, seeking plausible explanations while acknowledging the possibility of unknown species or phenomena. The editorial stance appears to be one of open-minded skepticism, encouraging further research and the collection of physical evidence. The recurring theme is the exploration of the unexplained in the natural world, particularly focusing on North American mysteries.

This issue of INFO Journal, dated June, features several articles exploring mysteries and unusual phenomena. The primary focus appears to be on cryptozoological and unexplained events, with a particular emphasis on Florida.

Freshwater Octopus Adaptation

The first article discusses the possibility of octopuses adapting to freshwater environments, specifically in West Virginia and the Ohio River. While acknowledging that some molluscs have recently adapted to freshwater faunas, the author notes that there is currently little evidence to investigate the adaptation of cephalopods to low salinity. Fisherman in the relevant areas are not reporting octopuses, and while pollution might be a factor, the lack of reports is significant. The author posits that any such adaptation would have had to occur gradually, first in estuarine environments and then in freshwater systems. There are no apparent reports of cephalopods from the Chesapeake Bay area, suggesting it as a potential area for further investigation. The article concludes that while a freshwater octopus is not biologically impossible, it is biologically improbable. A minor question raised is the observation that known captures of the octopus in question occurred in cold weather, prompting speculation about the role of temperature and osmotic regulation in allowing marine species to enter low-salinity environments.

Florida's Lost Volcano

This article by Charlie Carlson investigates the legend of Florida's 'lost volcano,' also known as the 'Wacissa Smoke.' Stories of smoke rising from the Wacissa Swamp, south of Tallahassee, date back centuries, with local folklore referring to it as the Wakulla Volcano. The smoke was visible from great distances, even from the Gulf of Mexico, and was used as a navigational marker. Theories about its origin ranged from pirate camps to a "devil stirring his tar kiln" or moonshine stills. By the 1870s, the phenomenon was attracting attention, with people claiming to see a "fiery glow." The mystery seemingly ended on August 31, 1886, when an earthquake in Charleston, South Carolina, was felt throughout North Florida. It was theorized that the earthquake sealed a fissure from which the smoke emanated. However, an inquiry in 1997 to the University of Florida's Department of Geology yielded a response stating they were unaware of the volcano and that no volcanic activity had occurred in the area. The author researched the enigma, finding that in 1960, Clarence Simpkins of the Geologic Survey found boulders but no volcanic origin. Volcanic material was reportedly discovered in the 1940s by an oil company, and in 1949, construction workers encountered a large hole surrounded by what appeared to be molten rock. In October 1997, an exploration by the UNX-Research Organization into the swamp found a knoll with scattered rocks of varying sizes, some appearing to have been exposed to extreme heat, but identified as chert and hard gray limestone, not volcanic material. More recent rational explanations for the smoke include natural gas released through a fissure sealed by the earthquake, an underground peat fire, vapors from hot springs, or ignited methane gases from decaying biomass. The fact remains that for hundreds of years, a column of smoke emerged from the Wacissa Swamp and ceased with the 1886 earthquake.

Old Zoo Photos

This piece by Chad Arment discusses the importance of old zoological photographs, referencing an article by Edwards (1996). The author highlights that as time passes, specimens in zoological collections, often wild-caught or immediate offspring, can become hybridized and inbred, losing resemblance to their wild ancestors. Photographs are thus crucial for documenting their original appearance. The article mentions several animals now considered extinct in the wild that were once exhibited in captivity, including the quagga, Syrian wild ass, thylacines, Caspian and Javan tigers, Burchell's zebra, pink-headed ducks, and Cape lion. It suggests searching old zoo photos for unique or undescribed species, noting that many zoos did not permit photography by non-personnel. The article also mentions Wallich's deer, once thought extinct but rediscovered in Tibet in 1987, raising the possibility of other little-known menageries harboring supposedly extinct species.

Maned Lions in Native American Myths: A Cautionary Note

Chad Arment also contributes an article exploring Native American world-views that merged the natural and supernatural. It discusses the mountain lion in the Great Lakes region, paralleling its natural status with its supernatural identification with meteors/comets. The Northern Iroquoians viewed the panther as part of a continuum of beings, and linguistic terms for it refer to 'longness.' As Native Americans became aware of Old World felines, the terms were extended, despite phenotypic differences. In Huron-Wyandot and Seneca terms, the mythical panther is a white meteor/comet man-being, providing a physical analogy to the fiery head and long tail of a meteor and the maned head of a lion. Artifacts representing this being, such as a Wyandot Iroquoian smoking pipe bowl, may incorporate a mane. The presence of a maned lion in North America has been postulated, but researchers are cautioned to be careful due to linguistic and conceptual transformations that occurred after contact between the Old and New Worlds. The 'horned missipisiw' or 'great lynx' was syncretized with the crowned African or Asian lion, a symbol of divine power, appearing on British Royal Arms and the Great Seals of the Colony of New York. This transformation may have begun as early as the Dutch presence in the 1614-24 period. The author concludes that references to maned lions in Native American folklore may be corroboration of a supernatural meteor-being or an artifact of Old World cultural influences.

Book Review: Encounters with the Honey Island Swamp Monster

Brad LaGrange reviews a booklet titled "Encounters With the Honey Island Swamp Monster," written by Dana Holyfield, granddaughter of Harlan Ford, who popularized the creature. The review highlights that the booklet retells Ford's story more completely than previous accounts, detailing his dedication to understanding the swamp and his attempts to photograph the creature. The second half of the booklet presents other witnesses' sightings, with partial names provided to protect their identities. Many of these reports are stated to be previously unpublished. The booklet is self-published and spiral-bound, priced at $6.95 plus shipping. A swamp cookbook, "Swamp Cookin" with the River People," is also available.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The recurring themes in this issue revolve around unexplained phenomena, historical mysteries, and the intersection of folklore, natural history, and cryptozoology. The editorial stance appears to be one of open inquiry into unusual claims, presenting various theories and historical accounts while also acknowledging the need for scientific investigation and caution against misinterpretation. The inclusion of articles on freshwater octopuses, a lost volcano, extinct animals, Native American myths, and a swamp monster suggests a broad interest in the unexplained and the fringes of scientific understanding.