1960s - UFO Handbook No.2 Malcolm Bull

Magazine Overview

Title: UFO HANDBOOK 2
Issue: 2
Publisher: British U.F.O. Research Association
Author: F. Malcolm Bull

This document is the second in a series of UFO Handbooks, aiming to provide a comprehensive guide for identifying phenomena that are often mistaken for unidentified flying objects (UFOs). It focuses on detailing various natural and man-made occurrences that can lead to misinterpretations.

Foreword

F. Malcolm Bull, the author, explains in the foreword that this handbook lists numerous natural and man-made phenomena that could be mistaken for UFOs. The suggested use for investigators is to employ this material when evaluating a sighting report. By understanding how these phenomena manifest, observers can better differentiate them from actual UFOs, thus concluding what the object may have been, or importantly, what it was not. Bull expresses gratitude to J.D. Llewellyn for assistance with the 'Artificial Earth Satellites' section, and to Dr. G.G. Doel and Dr. J. Cleary-Baker for their help and encouragement during the handbook's development.

Contents

The handbook's table of contents reveals a broad scope of topics designed to explain potential UFO sightings:

• The Night Sky
• Aircraft
• Artificial Earth Satellites
• The Earth's Atmosphere
• Aurora Borealis
• Balloons
• Birds
• Clouds
• Comets
• Gegenschein
• Fog, mist and rain
• Green Flash
• Leaves, kites and others
• Haloes and Coronae
• Luminous Sky
• Meteors and Meteorites
• Mirages
• Planets
• Sun- and Moon-dogs
• Zodiacal Light

Key Sections and Content

The Night Sky

This section notes that detailed diagrams of the night sky are omitted, as elementary astronomy booklets containing accurate star charts are readily available for purchase. It recommends 'STARS AT A GLANCE' published by GEORGE PHILIP & SON Ltd. as a useful resource for learning to navigate the night sky.

Aircraft

The handbook states that exhaustive information on recognizing conventional aircraft is not provided for several reasons:

1. Aircraft recognition charts are too complex for amateurs to memorize.
2. A simple identification system cannot cover all lighting and attitude variations of all aircraft.
3. If an object is close enough to be identified as an aircraft via charts, it is likely close enough for a competent observer to differentiate it from a UFO.

The document then outlines general principles of conventional aircraft behavior:

• They typically do not fly at speeds exceeding twice the speed of sound.
• They do not make rapid changes in speed.
• They do not perform abrupt maneuvers like right-angle turns or instantaneous reversals.
• Their shape generally does not change, except due to attitude relative to the observer.
• Lights on aircraft are usually reflections of the sun or moon, except in specific cases.
• Noise from engines or motors usually accompanies aircraft, though it may be lost at high altitudes. Sonic booms can occur if the aircraft is fast and low.
• Aircraft rarely approach the ground, except during emergencies or landings.
• Groups of three or more aircraft are uncommon.
• Aircraft near airports or airfields might perform more maneuvers, but still within expected parameters.
• Most aircraft are of familiar design; a circular object is therefore more likely to be a UFO.

The section also details aircraft lighting systems (red on port wing, green on starboard, white tail light) and circumstances that can lead to misidentification, such as flying through clouds, reflections from city lights, illuminated windows, or viewing an aircraft along its body, which can suggest a cigar shape. It also mentions specialized aircraft, like research aircraft with bomb-like appendages, and searchlight-carrying aircraft that have been mistaken for other phenomena.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The recurring theme throughout the handbook is the importance of rational explanation and the identification of mundane causes for UFO sightings. The editorial stance is one of skepticism towards unexplained aerial phenomena, advocating for a systematic approach to eliminate known explanations before considering the truly unknown. The handbook serves as a tool for critical analysis, empowering observers to distinguish between actual anomalies and misidentified conventional objects or natural events.

This document, likely an issue of 'Flying Saucer Review' (based on context from other pages), contains articles discussing phenomena that could be mistaken for unidentified flying objects (UFOs).

Prototype Aircraft and Air Corridors The text begins by noting that prototype aircraft, particularly those with 'delta-wing' and 'flying wing' designs, can contribute to confusion regarding UFO sightings. It then introduces a map of air corridors and routes over the British Isles, explaining that this map is intended to help investigators determine if a sighted object was likely an aircraft. The map shows control zones around major airfields and major air lanes, with aircraft typically flying at heights between ground level and approximately 3000 feet. The direction of the air corridor can indicate the likely direction of flight for an aeroplane.

Artificial Earth Satellites (AES) A significant portion of the document is dedicated to artificial earth satellites (AES). It states that news of satellite launches, once prominent, has become less so, with around 160 satellites in orbit by the end of December 1964. Keeping track of these objects is difficult for amateurs, but Whitaker's Almanack is suggested as a resource for orbital statistics. The Department of Scientific and Space Research at Slough is also mentioned as a source of information. The article lists ten characteristics to help observers recognize satellites:

1. Cannot be seen with the naked eye in daytime.
2. Few are visible to the naked eye; ECHO 1 and ECHO 2 were notable for their brightness.
3. Appear as moving star-like objects.
4. General appearance is star-like with no discernible detail, though optical instruments might reveal more, such as reflected sunlight.
5. Fainter objects may appear to twinkle.
6. May appear to have a halo if observed through cloud.
7. Transit time (rising to setting) can be up to half an hour.
8. Orbiting objects rise in a curve to an apex and fall away; non-orbiting objects have straight flight paths.
9. May disappear or appear due to entering or exiting Earth's shadow (eclipse).
10. With retrograde orbits, they can appear in any part of the sky and travel in any direction.

The text highlights factors that might lead an object to be suspected as a UFO: extreme deviations from these characteristics, such as definite color, change in speed or direction, maneuvers, or multiple objects seen together.

It is noted that a steady percentage of satellite observations are not attributable to known satellites, with about one-third later identified as deviated satellites. The remaining two-thirds are unexplained. Specific historical cases are mentioned: in 1953, Clyde Tombaugh detected two mystery satellites, and in February 1960, British newspapers reported the U.S. Defense Department's detection of a 15-ton unknown object in polar orbit. The document advises observers to familiarize themselves with AES behavior and transit details to distinguish them from UFOs.

The Earth's Atmosphere The document then shifts to a scientific explanation of Earth's atmosphere, describing it as a shallow layer of gas composed primarily of nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%), with traces of other gases. It is divided into several layers:

• Troposphere: Region of winds and clouds, extending up to about seven miles, with temperature decreasing with altitude. It contains 80% of the air's weight.
• Tropopause: The boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere.
• Stratosphere: Air is too thin to support life; no clouds form here. The ozone layer is within this belt, and temperature does not fall with altitude.
• Stratopause: Boundary at 35 miles, dividing the stratosphere from the mesosphere.
• Mesosphere: Extends up to about 60 miles, where the D-layer is found.
• Mesopause: Boundary at about 65 miles, separating the mesosphere from the region where auroras and meteors are detected.
• Ionosphere: Region of ionized atoms crucial for long-distance radio communication, containing various layers that reflect radio waves.
• Heaviside layer (E-layer): At 70 miles, reflects radio waves in the 3-3.3 Mc/s range.
• Appleton layer (F-layer): Divided into F₁ and F₂ belts.
• F₁ layer: At 125 miles, reflects radio waves in the 4-5 Mc/s range.
• F₂ layer: Between 200 and 250 miles, reflects radio waves in the 6-12 Mc/s range. This layer descends at night.

Frequencies greater than the critical value penetrate the ionosphere. The layers are affected by solar activity, leading to disruptions in radio communication during sunspots.

• Exosphere: The outermost layer, beyond the ionosphere, consisting of particles in separate orbits.

Aurora Borealis The article describes the Aurora Borealis as a phenomenon that could potentially be confused with UFOs. It details various forms of auroral displays:

• Glow: A general golden or yellowish brightening of the northern sky.
• Homogeneous Arc: A flattened band of light above the horizon.
• Rays: Bright shafts of light resembling searchlight beams, often seen with a homogeneous arc (rayed arc).
• Draperies: Waving curtains of colored light (red, green, or white).
• Corona: A spectacular variant where draperies form a circular wreath, sometimes enhanced by flame-like extensions.
• Flaming Aurora: Sheets and rays of pale light flashing from the horizon.

The cause is solar particles interacting with Earth's atmosphere near the magnetic poles. Auroral displays are most frequent near the Arctic Circle and decrease in visibility southward. They are typically seen in the northern sky but can cover the entire heavens. While impressive, they are not bright enough to be visible in daylight. Auroral activity occurs at altitudes around 70 miles and can extend much higher.

It is noted that noise accompanying displays is improbable, though some observers report faint hissing or sighing, possibly due to associated electrical disturbances. The eleven-year sunspot cycle is linked to aurora cycles, with the last sunspot maximum occurring in 1957-58.

Balloons Finally, the document categorizes balloons into two types:

• Balloons for amusement: Includes children's toy balloons and mass launchings of hydrogen-filled balloons for competitions. These often disperse and do not stay together over long distances.
• Balloons for research: These are more sophisticated devices with complex apparatus, often including metallic sheets for radar detection. As they ascend, the gas inside expands, causing them to be not fully inflated on launching. This can give them a loose appearance with fabric hanging down, potentially resembling UFOs.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance The recurring theme throughout this document is the need for careful observation and identification to distinguish between genuine UFO phenomena and known terrestrial or atmospheric occurrences. The editorial stance appears to be one of rational investigation, providing detailed explanations of natural phenomena and man-made objects (satellites, aircraft, balloons) that could be misidentified. The emphasis is on educating the observer and investigator to avoid misinterpretations, suggesting that many reported UFO sightings may have mundane explanations.

This issue of the UFO-HANDBOOK, Volume 1, Issue 1, published in 1959, focuses on common misidentifications of Unidentified Flying Objects (UFOs) by explaining various natural phenomena. The content is primarily educational, aiming to clarify how everyday occurrences can be mistaken for anomalous aerial objects.

Balloons

The handbook begins by discussing balloons, noting that many are used for atmospheric study and may be brightly colored for visual tracking. If a found balloon requires returning, there might be a fee. The text emphasizes that balloons are governed by wind and are unlikely to perform maneuvers. Their apparent stillness or smooth drift is due to wind conditions, which can differ at various altitudes, a factor to remember when considering wind-borne objects.

Birds

A small percentage of UFO reports are attributed to birds. Misleading cases often arise when birds are seen under unusual lighting conditions, particularly at night. The sight of a bird flying across the moon can be unnerving and contribute to a sighting report, especially for inexperienced observers. Geese flying in formation, particularly at high altitudes, can also be deceptive.

Luminous Owls

A particularly strange sight can be produced by owls covered in rotting vegetation. As the vegetation decays, it produces phosphorescent material that glows at night, potentially leading to a UFO sighting report if observed under these conditions.

Clouds

The issue details various common cloud formations in the British climate that can be mistaken for UFOs:

• Cirrostratus: Thin, high sheets found at 30,000 feet.
• Cirrocumulus: 'Mackerel sky,' series of round, fleecy clouds in lines at 25,000 feet.
• Cirrus: Thin wisps resembling wool or a horse's tail, found between 20,000 and 30,000 feet.
• Cumulonimbus: 'Thunderclouds,' dense masses of vapor, several thousand feet deep.
• Altostratus: Continuous layer of thin cloud at 15,000 feet.
• Altocumulus: Lines of cloudlets, joined or separate, found at 10,000 feet.
• Nimbostratus: Familiar dark grey rainclouds, found low in the skies.
• Cumulus: White, mountain-like clouds, often seen on summer days at 5,000 feet.
• Stratocumulus: Cloud layer of cumulus-like lines at around 10,000 feet.
• Stratus: Horizontal sheet of thin cloud at about 2,500 feet.

Variations, such as 'anvil clouds,' can also occur. Special mention is given to clouds with unfamiliar appearances that lead to misinterpretation.

Lenticular Clouds

These are highlighted as the most common cause of misleading UFO reports. Their symmetrical, circular shape is often described as 'like a flying saucer.' They can appear alone or in groups and are easily mistaken for artificial craft, particularly when seen amongst other cloud types.

Noctilucent Clouds

These are normal cloud formations at very high altitudes that catch sunlight when the sky is dark, appearing luminous against the night sky. This property makes them a frequent source of UFO sightings.

Opalescent Clouds

Also known as 'mother of pearl' clouds, these are ordinary clouds tinged with spectral colors due to light refraction. While unlikely to be mistaken for a UFO due to their ordinary appearance, the handbook notes 'one never knows.'

Comets

Except for very bright comets like Halley's or the Arend-Roland comet of 1957, confusion between comets and UFOs is unlikely. Naked-eye comets typically appear as misty patches of light, sometimes with a central spot and a tail directed away from the sun.

Gegenschein

Also known as counterglow, this phenomenon is an oval glow seen opposite the sun, caused by sunlight refracting through atmospheric dust and interplanetary particles. It is elusive and short-lived, making it improbable for anyone but an ill-informed observer to mistake it for a real object.

Fog, Mist and Rain

These phenomena distort or obscure vision. Mist can create a halo around lights, while fog or smog can yellow and dim them. They can also act as screens for shadows, such as the 'Brocken Spectre' in Saxony. Rainfall, like mist, can create optical effects like rainbows.

Green Flash

This controversial apparition is a momentary green flash seen as the sun dips below or rises above the horizon. Theories suggest it's due to color fatigue in the eye or atmospheric refraction. It's more likely to occur with a small cloud above the sun.

Leaves, Kites and Others

Objects like leaves and kites are wind-dependent and can be misidentified under unusual lighting. The handbook advises investigators to use their experience and consider meteorological conditions, noting that winds at different altitudes may vary.

Haloes and Coronae

These are rings of light surrounding the sun or moon, caused by ice particles in upper atmosphere clouds. They appear as pearly rings, often white but sometimes with spectral colors, and are stationary relative to the luminary.

Luminous Sky

A less known phenomenon, this is a faint glow covering the sky, potentially making stars invisible. It can appear as faint lines or bars, motionless and pale white.

Meteors and Meteorites

Between Mars and Jupiter lies a belt of asteroids. These bodies orbit the sun but can be deflected by gravitational fields. Over 8,000 million meteors enter Earth's atmosphere daily. Most burn up, but some are visible as flashes of light. Those that reach the surface are called meteorites. Meteors are visible as sudden flashes, moving quickly, and are typically seen between 65 and 45 miles altitude. Their colors can range from white to bluish, and their brightness varies. Fireballs are particularly brilliant meteors that can leave a lasting trail, sometimes with a green coloration.

Bolides

These meteoric bodies explode violently, throwing fragments to the ground.

Meteorites

A small number of meteorites land on Earth and can be seen in museums. The largest known meteorite is in Grootfontein, South Africa.

Tektites

These are small, glassy bodies found in specific areas, with shapes ranging from irregular to symmetrical. Their composition is mainly oxides of iron, aluminum, magnesium, calcium, and silicon. They are theorized to be produced by lunar volcanic eruptions. Types include australites (Australia), moldavites (Czechoslovakia), and bediasites (Texas). They are not found in the British Isles.

Mirages

Optical illusions caused by light refraction through layers of air at different temperatures. They make distant objects appear nearer and can create reflections, causing shimmering effects and making objects appear to hover.

Planets

Planets are celestial bodies that wander across the sky, appearing as tiny points of light indistinguishable from stars to the casual observer. They are visible throughout the year.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The recurring theme throughout this issue is the demystification of UFO reports by explaining natural and astronomical phenomena. The editorial stance is clearly educational, aiming to provide a rational explanation for sightings that are often attributed to extraterrestrial visitors. The handbook encourages observers and investigators to be knowledgeable about these phenomena to avoid misidentification, emphasizing the importance of scientific understanding in the study of UFOs.

This document, issue number 29, contains information related to astronomy, specifically focusing on planetary positions, stellar magnitudes, and atmospheric optical phenomena. The content appears to be from a publication focused on these subjects, likely a magazine or newsletter.

Planetary Positions and Visibility The text explains that Mercury and Venus are only visible near the sun in the sky, at maximum distances of 27° and 47° respectively. They are best observed before sunrise or after sunset, as their visibility is otherwise obscured by the sun's brightness. All planets move along the ecliptic, which is the path the sun takes across the sky annually.

Only five major planets—Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn—are visible to the naked eye. These planets appear like stars, generally brighter, and do not twinkle unless very close to the horizon. Mars has a reddish appearance, Mercury may look pinkish, while the other visible planets are white.

The document provides a table of the stellar magnitudes of these planets at their brightest: Mercury (-0.2), Venus (-4.08), Mars (-1.94), Jupiter (-2.4), and Saturn (-0.8).

A significant portion of the content is dedicated to the positions of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn amongst the zodiacal constellations for the years 1964 through 2000. It notes that Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto are not visible to the naked eye. A table lists the zodiacal constellation for each of these three planets for every year up to 2000.

Atmospheric Optical Phenomena The issue also describes two distinct atmospheric phenomena:

Sun- and Moon-dogs These are described as bright spots of light that appear in conjunction with a halo around the sun or moon. They are most beautiful when fully visible, especially at night. They are caused by the refraction of light by ice crystals in the upper atmosphere, representing an image of the light source. Typically, they consist of two points on either side of the luminary at a distance of 22°, but can also form one above and one below, totaling four points. When accompanied by a halo, they resemble beads on a circular wire.

Zodiacal Light This phenomenon is visible as a cone of light extending upwards from the horizon. It appears after sunset in March or April and before sunrise in September, though it can be seen on almost any night in the tropics. The dimensions of the cone are variable, usually extending upwards to a point halfway between the zenith and the horizon, with its base measuring about 30° along the horizon, centered where the sun sets or rises. It can extend to encircle the entire sky like a faint ribbon of light along the ecliptic. Its color is white, sometimes tinged with red, and it is always very faint.

The origin of Zodiacal Light is attributed to a host of interplanetary particles beyond Earth's atmosphere that reflect sunlight. It is stated to be similar in nature to the gegenschein, or counterglow.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance The recurring themes in this document are astronomical observation, planetary science, and atmospheric optics. The editorial stance appears to be educational and informative, aiming to provide readers with data and explanations regarding celestial bodies and observable sky phenomena. The detailed tables and descriptions suggest a focus on practical observation and scientific understanding.