Arizona Skeptic - Vol 5 No 1 - 1991

Magazine Overview

Title: The Arizona Skeptic
Issue: Volume 5, Issue 1
Date: July/August 1991
Publisher: Phoenix Skeptics
Country: USA
Document Type: Magazine Issue

This issue of The Arizona Skeptic, a journal promoting critical thinking, features a prominent "Rosenthal Lecture" by Harvard social psychology professor Robert Rosenthal. The magazine also includes book reviews and discussions on research methodology, skepticism, and related philosophical and scientific topics.

Rosenthal Lecture

By Jim Lippard

The issue opens with an account of a lecture given by Robert Rosenthal on February 17, 1989, at the University of Arizona. Rosenthal, known for his research on self-fulfilling prophecy, experimenter expectancy effects, and nonverbal communication, spoke on "Covert Communications in Classrooms, Clinics, and Courtrooms." He detailed his early interest in unintended social influence stemming from nonverbal cues, stemming from his own doctoral work at UCLA in the 1950s on projection as a defense mechanism.

Rosenthal described an early experiment where subjects rated individuals from photographs on a scale of personal success (-10 to +10). The crucial element was that half of the experimenters were told to expect an average ranking of -5, and the other half to expect +5. The experimenters obtained the expected results, implying that nonverbal cues were implicated, as all subjects received the same instructions. This "experimenter expectancy effect" has been replicated numerous times.

One interesting replication was conducted at the University of Manitoba by John Adair and Joyce Epstein. In a two-stage experiment, the first stage was similar to Rosenthal's initial study. In the second stage, audio tapes of the experimenters' instructions were used with new subjects, and no experimenters were present. The expectation was that the expectancy effect would be eliminated or reduced. However, the effect was larger, suggesting that auditory information could be more easily gleaned than visual cues. Rosenthal commented that people are better at detecting liars by voice alone than by watching and listening, implying that visual cues can overwhelm auditory ones in Western culture.

Further experiments designed to identify the cues causing the expectancy effect involved analyzing audio tapes of high-bias researchers. Psycholinguists examined sections of the tape with positive or negative connotations for differential vocal emphasis. A significant correlation was found between emphasis and photo ratings, but a smaller correlation existed between the experimenter's bias and the emphasis itself.

Rosenthal then discussed the practical significance of even small correlations, citing a study where a .037 correlation between aspirin use and heart attack prevention accounted for the extended lives of 4 out of 100 subjects. He also mentioned similar findings with the drug AZT for AIDS patients.

His work with rats labeled "maze bright" and "maze dull" was also discussed. Rats labeled "maze bright" consistently performed better in maze tests than those labeled "maze dull," even when the labels were assigned randomly. This effect persisted even when rats were isolated in Skinner boxes. Rosenthal noted that Bertrand Russell had observed similar phenomena in 1927, with animals studied by Americans rushing about and those studied by Germans sitting still.

In a controversial experiment, teachers were told that some randomly chosen students were gifted. These students subsequently performed better in school, with a correlation of .08. Meta-analyses suggest that this effect involves teachers treating students as gifted (affect) and working them harder (effort).

An unpublished experiment by one of Rosenthal's students found that the generalization of males performing better at quantitative tasks and females at verbal tasks was not true in elementary classrooms where teachers did not believe it. Videotapes revealed that teachers were more hostile when teaching cross-sexual materials (quantitative to girls, verbal to boys), with less effect from female teachers and androgynous-appearing teachers.

Rosenthal also noted differences in how experimenters interacted with male and female subjects. Experimenters smiled at female subjects significantly more often than male subjects. Psychology experiments involving opposite-sex experimenters and subjects took longer. He also mentioned "channel discrepancies" between sexes, with male experimenters being friendlier in movement and tone of voice with female subjects, while female experimenters were friendly in movement but not tone with female subjects, and not friendly in movement but friendly in tone with male subjects. Females telling the truth and males lying were judged as more physically attractive than females lying and males telling the truth.

In courtroom settings, an experiment involving judges giving jury instructions showed that ratings of a judge's wisdom (from visual cues) could predict a defendant's past criminal history. When a judge's tone of voice was rated as honest, the jury was more likely to find the defendant guilty. Rosenthal emphasized that these were not causal claims but areas for further research.

Book Reviews

Philosophical Essays in Pragmatic Naturalism by Paul Kurtz

Reviewed by Bill Green

Bill Green reviews Paul Kurtz's "Philosophical Essays in Pragmatic Naturalism," finding it a valuable resource for establishing a philosophical foundation for ethical arguments. Green, a skeptic, seeks rational changes to his ethical framework and finds Kurtz's work helpful in evaluating ethics based on their ability to achieve desired goals. He praises Kurtz as a leading figure in skeptical and humanist thought. The book is divided into three sections: Pragmatic Naturalism, Naturalistic Ethics, and Naturalism vs. Phenomenology and Existentialism. Green highlights several quotes from the book, particularly those related to naturalistic ethics, emphasizing the importance of empirical methods, value judgments, and the existential dilemma of life. He agrees with Kurtz's critique of existentialism, particularly the claim that man has no nature but only existence.

Green expresses a desire for more published articles in popular scientific journals that evaluate ethics using scientific methods. He highly recommends reading and studying Kurtz's book.

Pitfalls in Human Research: Ten Pivotal Points by Theodore X. Barber

Reviewed by Jim Lippard

Jim Lippard reviews Theodore X. Barber's "Pitfalls in Human Research." The book, written for experimental psychologists, is also useful for those interested in the paranormal. Barber identifies ten pitfalls in human behavioral research, distinguishing between the investigator (who designs and analyzes) and the experimenter (who carries out the study). These pitfalls include the investigator paradigm effect, experimental design effect, loose procedure effect, data analysis effect, fudging effect, experimenter personal attributes effect, failure to follow procedure effect, misrecording effect, and unintentional expectancy effect.

Lippard notes that Barber's discussion of the investigator fudging effect specifically addresses parapsychology. Barber believes that Rosenthal's experimenter expectancy effect is often overstated and may actually be the result of other pitfalls, such as investigator data analysis or experimenter misrecording. The book provides examples and recommendations for avoiding these pitfalls.

They Call It Hypnosis by Robert A. Baker

Reviewed by Jim Lippard

Jim Lippard reviews Robert A. Baker's "They Call It Hypnosis." Baker argues for a social-psychological interpretation of hypnosis, asserting that hypnotized individuals do not perform actions they would not ordinarily do. He explains cases of subjects throwing acid at experimenters as subjects knowing the experimenter takes responsibility and that nothing will go wrong. Lippard finds this explanation insufficient for cases where unethical hypnotists induced patients to commit crimes or attempt murder, citing Leo Katz's work. He notes that the Model Penal Code lists conduct during hypnosis as not voluntary. Baker dismisses this, suggesting people use hypnosis as an excuse for behavior they would have engaged in anyway.

Lippard also discusses Richard Feynman's experience being hypnotized, which Baker interprets as social pressure rather than magical hypnotic power. Baker maintains there are no EEG differences between hypnotized and non-hypnotized individuals, contrary to David Spiegel's research. Lippard notes the lack of acknowledgment of Spiegel's differing views in Baker's book. Ernest Hilgard is mentioned as pointing out that Baker rejects the usefulness of hypnotic susceptibility scales, a position contrary to both state and non-state theorists.

Despite some criticisms, including typographical errors, Lippard highly recommends Baker's book as one of the best on the subject of hypnosis.

Editor's Column

By Jim Lippard

Jim Lippard announces that the editorship of The Arizona Skeptic is moving from Phoenix to Tucson. He hopes to return to a regular quarterly or bimonthly publishing schedule and appeals for more material. He provides an update on the magazine's volume and issue numbering, clarifying that the current issue is the first of volume 5.

Correction

A correction is issued regarding an article in the February/March 1990 issue concerning the Institute for Creation Research. The article incorrectly stated that the myth of live freshwater clams radiocarbon dated in excess of 1600 years appeared in Duane Gish's booklet "Have You Been Brainwashed?". The claim actually appears in Henry Morris' "Scientific Creationism."

Upcoming Meetings

Information is provided about upcoming meetings for the Phoenix Skeptics, held at Jerry's Restaurant, on the first Saturday of each month, with a focus on topics like "Why People Believe In the Paranormal."

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The Arizona Skeptic consistently promotes critical thinking, the scientific method, and the logical evaluation of claims, particularly those related to the paranormal, occult, and fringe sciences. The magazine's editorial stance is skeptical, aiming to provide factual and scientific information and to challenge unsubstantiated beliefs. The reviews and articles in this issue reflect a deep engagement with research methodology, the philosophical underpinnings of skepticism, and the critical examination of psychological phenomena like hypnosis and expectancy effects.