2012 09 00 History and Technology - Vol 28 No 3 - Geppert

Magazine Overview

This document is an article titled "Extraterrestrial encounters: UFOs, science and the quest for transcendence, 1947-1972" by Alexander C.T. Geppert, published in the journal "History and Technology: An International Journal", Volume 28, Issue 3, in September 2012. The article was downloaded on April 11, 2013, from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville.

Article Content

The article begins by noting the unprecedented prominence gained by debates on extraterrestrial life starting with the first waves of UFO sightings in 1947. Initially an American phenomenon, flying saucer reports quickly became global, generating as much sensation in Europe as in the USA. The UFO phenomenon was often conflated with technoscientific approaches to space exploration. Despite efforts by incipient space experts like Willy Ley, Arthur C. Clarke, and Wernher von Braun to debunk the phenomenon, they failed to address the epistemic-ontological challenge it posed. The article highlights the difficulty for historians in studying a phenomenon whose existence has been non-consensual since its genesis, posing complex questions of fact and fiction, knowing and believing, and science and religion.

The Genesis of the UFO Phenomenon

The article traces the origins of the modern UFO phenomenon to Kenneth Arnold's sighting on June 24, 1947, where he reported nine shiny 'saucer-like' aircraft flying at immense speed. His report, published by journalist William C. Bequette, led to widespread speculation and reports of flying saucers in 40 states within a month. The term 'flying saucers' became a new category of referent, with similar terms emerging in other languages. The more technical term 'Unidentified Flying Object' (UFO) was introduced in 1950 by Edward J. Ruppelt, but the original terms continued to be used synonymously. The author notes that Arnold's report ushered in the 'era of the flying saucer' or the 'haunted decade,' coinciding with the Cold War and fears of nuclear armageddon.

Academic Challenges and the Concept of 'Astroculture'

The article discusses the reluctance of scholars in the humanities to engage with the UFO phenomenon due to its oscillation between fact and fiction, and science and religion. Previous academic studies, often by sociologists and anthropologists, have focused almost exclusively on the USA and lacked historical depth. Historians have been even slower to engage, despite the phenomenon's historical dimension. The author suggests that the unclear ontological status of UFOs and a potential social taboo on taking them seriously may contribute to this restraint. The article aims to historicize UFOs by internationalizing their history, analyzing them as an integral part of 'astroculture' – a comprehensive cultural history of the Space Age that includes UFOs, contact claims, and other 'pseudo-scientific' features.

The article focuses on the quarter-century from the 1947 Arnold sighting until about 1972–1973, marking the end of the classical Space Age and a shift in the UFO controversy with the rise of alien abduction claims. It also examines the issues at stake in international UFO controversies, particularly those contrasting with professional technoscience, and the boundary between science and belief, exemplified by the extraterrestrial hypothesis (ETH).

The Global Invention of the Flying Saucer

UFOs, initially an American invention, rapidly became a global phenomenon, particularly in Western Europe. Protagonists of the movement became prominent expert-celebrities. Reports of 'disk-like objects' appeared in newspapers like The Times of London, and Der Spiegel highlighted the global character of the phenomenon, noting sightings across continents. By the mid-1950s, UFOs had been sighted in 70 countries, and by the end of the decade, worldwide. The article mentions various 'flaps' or waves of sightings identified by ufologists like Jacques Vallée and historians like David Jacobs, noting different chronologies for these intensified periods.

UFOs and the Space Age

The article argues that UFOs arose at the beginning of the 'Golden Age of Spaceflight' and are an integral element of a comprehensive astroculture. It critiques classifying UFOs as 'pseudoscientific' or peripheral, emphasizing their historical import. The 'saucer racket' is compared to the interwar 'rocket racket,' both fostered by amateur societies aiming to establish space exploration as a legitimate enterprise. The article notes that space experts, while instrumental in making outer space imaginable, were prompt to combat what they considered irrational UFO claims, viewing them as a threat to their authority.

The article highlights the plurality-of-worlds debate as a key aspect of the UFO phenomenon, questioning whether humans are unique in the universe. It notes that while the idea of extraterrestrial life has ancient roots, UFOs became a more frequent target of public doubt. The extraterrestrial hypothesis (ETH) began to generate significant public controversy in 1950, with books by Donald E. Keyhoe, Frank Scully, and Gerald Heard popularizing the idea that UFOs were spaceships from Mars or Venus. These books were widely read and discussed internationally, with Keyhoe's "Flying Saucers Are Real" selling half a million copies.

Scientific Skepticism and Discursive Tension

The article discusses the tension between believers and debunkers, exemplified by the entry of scientist Donald Menzel into the debate. Menzel, an astrophysicist, attempted to explain UFO 'apparitions' as natural phenomena like mirages. However, his intervention in his 1953 book "Flying Saucers" fueled the debate rather than settling it, leading Keyhoe to write his sequel. The article identifies a double causal claim that characterized international UFO discussions: the alleged extraterrestrial provenance of UFOs and the idea that their influx was triggered by nuclear bomb tests on Earth. This linked the Space and Atomic Ages, with the development of nuclear power seen as a threat to the universe.

The article points out that proponents and critics of the ETH largely limited their spatial imagination to the solar system, typically discussing Mars or Venus as potential origins for UFOs. It also notes the irony that space experts, who should have been well-positioned to explain the phenomenon, often displayed the same scientific skepticism they had faced before the war. The article mentions the West German Gesellschaft für Weltraumforschung (GfW) and its decision to withdraw from participating in the UFO debate.

Diagrammatic Explanations of UFO Evidence

Figure 2, from the "Flying Saucer Review" in 1961, presents a diagrammatic scheme of possible explanations for UFO evidence. These are categorized as 'UNORTHODOX' (Space animals, Etheric vehicles, Solid vehicles, From outside the Solar system, Non-humanoid beings, From anywhere) and 'ORTHODOX' (Space ships, Unknown natural phenomena, Physical, Psychical, Originating in the Solar System, Non-humanoids, Humanoids, From Mars, Venus or Earth). The author of the diagram concluded that the most logical interpretation was that UFOs are space ships coming from Mars or Venus or an Earth-like planet of another sun.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The article consistently frames the UFO phenomenon within the broader historical and cultural context of the 20th century, particularly the Space Age and the Cold War. It emphasizes the importance of understanding UFOs not just as isolated sightings but as an integral part of 'astroculture' and the public's engagement with science, technology, and the unknown. The author advocates for a historical approach that considers the phenomenon's global spread, its complex relationship with science and belief, and its role in shaping cultural imagination. The editorial stance is one of academic inquiry, aiming to historicize and contextualize the UFO phenomenon, challenging its dismissal as mere pseudoscience and highlighting its significance in understanding the post-war era.

This document is a section from a publication titled "A.C.T. Geppert," focusing on the history and evolution of the UFO phenomenon and its cultural impact from 1947 to the early 1970s. It delves into the debates surrounding UFOs, the emergence of 'contactee' narratives, and the intersection of ufology with science fiction and broader cultural trends.

The British Interplanetary Society's Stance

The British Interplanetary Society (BIS), along with the GfW, adopted a strategy to address the 'plague of flying saucers.' Under Clarke's chairmanship, the BIS published critical reviews of UFO books in its journal. While stating there was no official 'party-line,' the Society declared it remained unconvinced that the planet was in contact with extraterrestrial forces, though it maintained an open mind tinged with skepticism. They acknowledged a desire to believe in spaceships but also noted the possibility of natural phenomena.

Debunking Efforts and Public Perception

Despite efforts by figures like Clarke and Ley to debunk what they considered irrational beliefs, they struggled to formulate a concise alternative standpoint that resonated with the public. To maintain distance from 'cranks and crackpots,' they resorted to humorous polemics. Clarke famously stated that UFOs prove 'how rare it is on Earth' to find intelligent life. Ley expressed puzzlement over the continuous stream of UFO books, suggesting that flying saucers might represent natural phenomena that had escaped human understanding.

The 'Contactee' Phenomenon

Following Arnold's encounter, the UFO controversy transformed significantly between 1947 and 1953. The focus shifted from sightings to attributing an extraterrestrial origin, and then to claims of actual encounters with 'contactees.' This period saw UFOs invade popular culture, influencing music and film. The article highlights the rise of 'contactee stories' as a best-selling subgenre, with George Adamski emerging as a preeminent star. Adamski claimed face-to-face contact and personal communication with beings from other planets, detailing his experiences in books like 'Flying Saucers Have Landed' and 'Inside the Space Ships.' His claims gained international attention, even reaching Queen Juliana of the Netherlands.

European Encounters and Skepticism

Adamski's European tour faced protests and accusations of fraud in Zurich. Meanwhile, in Europe, similar contact claims emerged, including those from Frenchmen Antoine Mazaud and Marius Dewilde. A significant case involved Cedric Allingham, whose book 'Flying Saucer from Mars' described an encounter in Scotland. Evidence suggests Allingham may have been Sir Patrick Moore. The contactees' rise confused the controversy, with 'authoritative' ufologists accusing them of hindering evidence-based efforts. Clarke, in particular, criticized books like 'Flying Saucers Have Landed' for obscuring the truth and deterring serious researchers.

The Nature of UFO Evidence

The article poses the fundamental question: 'What do we really know about UFOs?' It explores the epistemic-ontological problem of the phenomenon's reality and the kind of evidence required to attest to its existence, distinguishing between knowledge and belief. The debate has undergone transformations in 1950, 1953, and 1966, with core questions about what UFOs are, whence they come, and why remaining constant. The role of experts, eyewitnesses, and various forms of evidence, including photographs, drawings, and alleged artifacts, are discussed.

Historical Parallels and Cultural Context

Two historical parallels are drawn: one with the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI) and another with turn-of-the-century disputes about spiritualism and communication with the beyond. Both ufology and SETI are characterized as fields seeking to legitimate their activities through revolutionary potential. The article suggests that the UFO phenomenon is deeply intertwined with the 'Space Age' and broader cultural fantasies of spatial invasion and conquest, fueled by the Cold War context, but not solely explained by it. The quest for transcendence and salvation in outer space is identified as a common thread.

Hermann Oberth's Shift

In 1960, Hermann Oberth, a respected figure in rocketry, publicly shifted his stance, stating he could no longer exclude the possibility that UFOs were of extraterrestrial origin. He proclaimed flying saucers 'very real' and carrying visitors from outer space, suggesting they acted as sentinels observing humanity's development. This shift was met with mixed reactions, considered an embarrassment or publicity stunt by some, and did little to reconcile epistemic disputes or enhance ufology's respectability.

Astroculture, Technoscience, and Transcendence

The article concludes by examining the ongoing oscillation between science and religion, knowing and believing, in UFO debates. It argues that the UFO phenomenon, deeply inscribed into the Space Age, represents a modern myth that historians have only begun to understand. The Cold War context intensified existing fantasies but did not fully explain the profound sociocultural relevance of UFOs. The underlying quest for transcendence, to overcome the present condition and find salvation in or from outer space, is presented as a key element connecting ufologists, space enthusiasts, and the broader cultural fascination with the unknown.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The recurring themes include the historical development of UFO beliefs, the tension between scientific skepticism and popular belief, the role of media and popular culture in shaping perceptions, and the philosophical implications of the UFO phenomenon as a modern myth intertwined with the Space Age and the human quest for transcendence. The editorial stance appears to be one of historical analysis, exploring the phenomenon's cultural and intellectual context without necessarily endorsing or debunking specific claims, but rather examining how these beliefs have been constructed and debated over time.

This issue of History and Technology, edited by A.C.T. Geppert, focuses on the historical and cultural dimensions of unidentified flying objects (UFOs) and the broader "Space Age" phenomenon. The content appears to be a collection of scholarly articles and references, primarily in English, with some German citations, exploring the historical trajectory of UFO beliefs, investigations, and their societal impact.

Key Articles and Themes

The issue delves into the historical context of the "flying saucer" concept, tracing its origins and evolution. It highlights key government-funded investigations in the United States, such as Project Sign, Project Grudge, and the long-running Project Blue Book, which concluded with the controversial Condon Report in 1969. The text also references the emergence of "alien abduction" narratives, pinpointing the 1961/1966 case of Betty and Barney Hill as a significant early event in this discourse.

Several citations point to scholarly works that analyze the cultural impact of UFOs, including their connection to futuristic thought, science fiction, and the broader imagination of the Space Age. The role of media in shaping public perception is also examined, with references to newspaper coverage and the influence of popular culture, such as Steven Spielberg's film "Close Encounters of the Third Kind."

The issue also touches upon the scientific and pseudoscientific aspects of UFO research, referencing figures like J. Allen Hynek and his classification system for UFO encounters (CEI, CEII, CEIII, CEIV). The academic interest in UFOs is framed within the broader history of occultism, spiritism, and Western esotericism, suggesting a multidisciplinary approach to the subject.

Specific references include discussions on the "alternative history of the Space Age," the "nexus of outer space and the limits to futuristic thought," and the "credibility effects" of media reports on UFO beliefs. The issue also notes the transnational nature of UFO discussions and the establishment of expert networks.

Notable Mentions and References

Key individuals mentioned include A.C.T. Geppert (editor), J. Allen Hynek (ufologist), Jacques Vallée (ufologist), Donald Keyhoe (proponent of UFOs), and Hermann Oberth (pioneer of rocketry and UFO theorist). Organizations such as Project Sign, Project Grudge, and Project Blue Book are central to the discussion of official investigations.

The references section is extensive, listing numerous books and articles from the mid-20th century to the early 21st century, covering a wide range of topics related to UFOs, space exploration, science fiction, and the history of science and culture. This comprehensive bibliography underscores the scholarly nature of the publication.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The overarching theme of this issue is the historical and cultural study of UFO phenomena. The editorial stance appears to be one of academic inquiry, seeking to understand UFOs not necessarily as physical craft from other worlds, but as a cultural and social phenomenon that reflects broader societal anxieties, hopes, and imaginations, particularly during the Space Age. The issue emphasizes the interdisciplinary nature of UFO studies, drawing from history, sociology, cultural studies, and the history of science and technology. The focus is on how UFOs have been perceived, investigated, and represented in society and culture, rather than on validating or debunking specific sightings.