2011 00 00 Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion - Vol 50 No 2 - McKinnon

Magazine Overview

This issue of the Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion (JSSR) features a "BOOK REVIEWS" section, with the journal celebrating its "50TH ANNIVERSARY VOLUME." The issue is Volume 50, Number 2, published in 2011.

Book Reviews

"FAITH, POLITICS, AND POWER: THE POLITICS OF FAITH-BASED INITIATIVES" by Rebecca Sager

This review, by Mary C. Segers of Rutgers University, examines Rebecca Sager's book, which is the first systematic effort to analyze the implementation of President George W. Bush's faith-based initiatives (FBIs) at the state level. Bush announced his domestic policy of FBIs in 2001, claiming churches providing social services suffered discrimination in competing for federal funds. He established the White House Office of Faith-Based and Community Initiatives (OFBCI) under John DiIulio. Bush initially failed to get congressional approval and implemented the policy through executive orders. Sager's book analyzes how this policy, a legacy from Bush's time as Governor of Texas, translated to individual states, starting with its initial success and subsequent stagnation in Texas.

Sager's methodology involved interviewing faith-based liaisons appointed by governors, compiling data on state legislation, and conducting extensive field research. She observed how states used faith-based conferences to share information about funding and regulations. These methods allowed her to compile a comprehensive study of FBI practices at the state level. Sager uses social movement theory and symbolic politics to understand why this policy, despite being poorly funded, took hold in 41 states. She argues that FBIs, while failing to help the needy due to insufficient funding, succeeded in reconfiguring church-state relations and served as a symbolic victory for evangelical supporters of the Republican Party. Other advocates included those who wanted to help the needy, include churches in the public square, attract voters (especially African Americans), and promote fiscal conservatism by offering alternatives to government-sponsored services. Sager notes that the policy appealed to constituencies including believers, the fiscally concerned, and conservative political ideologues.

Sager contends that FBIs were not primarily aimed at helping the poor but at expanding the Republican Party's reach and changing how religious groups are treated. She asserts that claims for the policy were overstated, with supporters resorting to fiction rather than fact, as there was no evidence that faith-based groups were excluded from the social services sector or discriminated against. Furthermore, there was no evidence that they were uniformly better at providing services.

From her state-level study, Sager concludes that FBI policy failed in its primary objective of helping the poor due to a lack of new funding, daunting bureaucratic requirements for accessing limited funds, and the inability of faith-based groups to fully take over responsibility for the poor. She quotes Sager stating, "In the end, small churches and religious groups are primarily in the business of ministering to their flock—not of running day-care centers, drug rehabilitation programs, and prisoner reentry offices" (p. 189).

Despite failing its primary goal, the policy achieved secondary goals at the political rhetoric and symbolic politics level, reframing church-state relations and legitimating evangelical social movements. Sager notes, "Their symbolic value alone is so great that the faith-based initiatives have flourished without the nourishment of funding" (p. 190).

Regarding the future, Sager believes FBIs are here to stay. She points out that Barack Obama proposed a faith-based program focused on helping the poor. While Obama created the White House Office of Faith-Based and Neighborhood Partnerships and broadened its advisory council, he did not rescind the hiring provision allowing faith-based groups to hire only co-religionists while receiving government funds, which disappointed many. Critics also point to Obama's outreach to evangelical leaders as political, similar to Bush's strategy. The review notes that Obama appears to be using the initiative as a symbolic political tool, but questions whether he can provide necessary funding given national fiscal restraint. The reviewer praises the book's meticulous research, rigorous methodology, and theoretical sophistication, noting only minor errors. Sager's study offers timely lessons for policymakers as the Obama administration develops its own faith-based initiative.

"RANKING FAITHS: RELIGIOUS STRATIFICATION IN AMERICA" by James D. Davidson and Ralph E. Pyle

This review, by William A. Mirola of Marian University, discusses Davidson and Pyle's book, which explores the historical and contemporary links between religion and stratification/inequalities in American society. The book's strength lies in its detailed presentation of how religious affiliations have perpetuated power and privilege, aspects often forgotten or discounted by social scientists. The authors address why social scientists often overlook religion and inequality, particularly social class inequality, citing reasons such as religion not being as significant for resource allocation or public life as it once was.

The analysis is centered around three questions: how religious stratification developed in the colonial period, what factors maintained it, and its impact on American society's stability. Davidson and Pyle adapt Donald Noel's 1968 work on ethnic stratification, arguing that religious stratification results from religious prejudice, competition, and power differentials. These factors led to laws and customs that maintained the stratification system. The book links religious stratification levels in different historical periods to social instability. It examines the Colonial period through contemporary times, illustrating how group rankings and differential access to resources demonstrate the continuity and transformation of American religious stratification.

The review highlights the book's contribution in detailing how religious affiliations have been used to perpetuate power and privilege. The authors present data tables summarizing legal status, affiliations of political figures, and university presidents over time, reinforcing the strong ties between religious affiliation and access to social power and privilege.

A theoretical challenge noted is the "chicken and egg" problem of whether religious affiliation is an independent or dependent variable. The authors acknowledge that religious affiliation can be seen as a product of differential power and resource distribution, but also that causal influences occur in two stages: first, class positions shape religious affiliation, and second, religious affiliation perpetuates power and privilege. The reviewer suggests that the analysis could benefit from recognizing that imported class structures from England shaped early religious affiliations. The reviewer also finds the discussion of functionalism and conflict theory somewhat pedantic, suggesting more space could have been given to Neo-Marxist theories and cultural capital.

Overall, the reviewer found the book to be a wealth of information, highly relevant to contemporary issues, and commends the authors for their excellent historical analysis of religious stratification.

"AMERICAN GRACE: HOW RELIGION DIVIDES AND UNITES US" by Robert D. Putnam and David E. Campbell

This review, by Jason Wollschleger of the University of Washington, discusses Putnam and Campbell's book, which argues that the U.S. religious economy and historical forces explain the coexistence of religious devotion and diversity with a relative absence of religious conflict. Their core argument is based on "religious churn" resulting from the social upheaval of the 1960s and the unique structure of the American religious economy (separation of church and state, religious pluralism). This combination leads to people being socially connected to those from other religious groups, fostering religious tolerance and reducing negative prejudices. The book uses examples like "Aunt Susan" and "my friend Al" to illustrate how connections to individuals from different religious groups can lead to reduced negative feelings.

The reviewer highly recommends the book, calling it a "new bible on American religion." It covers a broad range of topics, including religious change, religious participation, and the relationship between religion and ethnicity. The book offers a synthesis of religious research based on carefully crafted research, accessible to a general audience.

However, the reviewer notes that some academic readers might be disappointed by the lack of mention of certain key scholars and theories. For instance, the authors mention the "three Bs" (belief, belonging, and behaving) but not Smidt, Kellstadt, Guth, and Green's work on these measures. They also present findings on willingness to believe people outside one's tradition will go to heaven without referencing Rodney Stark's similar findings from the Baylor Religion Survey. Additionally, the similarity between Putnam and Campbell's argument for social connections increasing tolerance and Blau's theory of cross-cutting social circles is noted.

Despite these points, the reviewer believes the book will be extremely beneficial for the field, bridging the gap between scholarship on religion and the public, and potentially promoting broader interest in the subject. The availability of the panel study data would also be valuable for scholars.

"A HISTORY OF ISLAM IN AMERICA: FROM THE NEW WORLD TO THE NEW WORLD ORDER" by Kambiz GhaneaBassiri

This review, by Benjamin B. Devan of Durham University, describes GhaneaBassiri's book as an "insider's account" of Muslim and non-Muslim interaction in America. GhaneaBassiri, an American Muslim and professor, offers a "relational-oriented history" that moves beyond the "binary opposition" of "Islam and the West." The book's 10 chapters are primarily chronological, featuring illustrations and a bibliography. GhaneaBassiri focuses on "living Muslims" rather than "literary and political images of Islam," examining multiracial or "liminal" communities and Muslim slaves from North and West Africa.

The review highlights that some African Muslims converted to Christianity, while others maintained Muslim identities discreetly or openly. The case of Abdul Rahman, a freed African slave, is mentioned as an example of a black Muslim dissociative trend. Post-Civil War, Muslim African Americans often presented themselves as Turks, Arabs, or "Moors." The book also covers the immigration of 60,000 Muslims from Anatolia, the Levant, Eastern Europe, and South Asia between 1900–1920, who formed ethnic enclaves. Esoteric Sufism gained traction, and the 1893 "Parliament of World Religions" provided a forum for figures like Mohammed Alexander Russell Webb to promote Islam.

GhaneaBassiri reports that this idealization of Islam continued into the 20th century with indigenous Black Muslim nationalist movements like the Moorish Science Temple and the Nation of Islam. He notes their frustration with non-American Muslims and complaints of racism within the Muslim world. Conversely, Arab, Eastern European, and other light-skinned Muslim and Hindu immigrants sought to identify as racially dominant "whites," with Islam being subsidiary to skin color or nationality. Masons and Shriners also appropriated Islamic symbols.

GhaneaBassiri's insider perspective is evident in his examination of late 20th- and early 21st-century Muslim American activism, which he sees as an increasing willingness to participate in the American political process. However, he challenges Muslim advocacy organizations to better reflect diversity and criticizes them for being swayed by foreign interests and "Puritanical" readings of Islamic texts, potentially aggravating discrimination and leading to unsatisfactory relationships with the U.S. government. The reviewer suggests GhaneaBassiri could have cited more official or quantifiable data regarding discrimination. Despite this minor critique, the reviewer concludes that the book splendidly presents "A History of Islam in America."

"EMPIRE OF SACRIFICE: THE RELIGIOUS ORIGINS OF AMERICAN VIOLENCE" by Jon Pahl

This review, by Rebecca Moore of San Diego State University, discusses Jon Pahl's book, which examines the roots of violence in America from the conquest of native peoples to the war in Iraq. Pahl argues that American history "is riddled with patterns of religious violence" (p. 2), and that Americans routinely justify "blessed brutalities" and "innocent domination." He posits that sacrifice, as both rhetoric and practice, is central to American religious history.

Pahl defines violence broadly to include individual aggression as well as social and linguistic systems of exclusion, degradation, and destruction. He uses various theoretical classifications of religion. His flexible definitions allow him to consider many cultural products as religious. The book draws upon the works of René Girard, R. Scott Appleby, and Mark Juergensmeyer.

The review highlights Pahl's examination of violence against youth, African Americans, women, and victims of capital punishment. The discussion of violence against young people, exemplified in horror films, is considered the weakest part, though the reviewer acknowledges its normalization of "sacrifice." The review notes Pahl's provocative insights into the religious justification for violence against women and African slaves, using slave narratives to show how Christian emphasis on the soul can lead to ignoring bodily harm. The chapter on capital punishment, "Sacrificing Humans," argues that executions are marked by discourses and rituals of human sacrifice, masking their historical reality.

Pahl contrasts the justifications for executions in colonial New England with the actual events. He concludes with an epilogue on the global war on terror, noting the rhetoric of innocence surrounding the U.S. invasion of Iraq. The paradox of "innocent domination" requiring sacrifice for freedom and democracy is highlighted.

The reviewer characterizes the book as an "experiment" and a "postmodern history," acknowledging its complexity. Pahl admits that while some forms of religion legitimize or produce systemic violence, others resist it. A sequel, "a coming religious peace," is planned.

The review praises the book as thought-provoking and a valuable guide for understanding the religious roots of contemporary violence in American national policies. The concepts of "innocent domination" and "blessed brutalities" are deemed useful for future assessments of religious violence.

"WHAT IS A PERSON? RETHINKING HUMANITY, SOCIAL LIFE, AND THE MORAL GOOD FROM THE PERSON UP" by Christian Smith

This review, by Thomas J. Josephsohn of Loyola University Chicago, discusses Christian Smith's book, which merges personalism and critical realism to offer a new perspective on sociology. Smith argues that social scientists need to pay closer attention to their models of humanity and how it functions, as potentially absurd or unrealistic foundations can lead to ungrounded conclusions. Smith defines personhood by listing 30 qualities unique to humans or present to a greater degree in humans than animals. He posits that our being is directed towards sustaining ourselves through loving relationships, and that objective purpose is necessary for science to avoid relativism.

The reviewer questions the term "purpose," suggesting "tendency" might be more appropriate, and wonders if purpose needs to be found or if it can be usefully answered. While Smith demonstrates humanity's need for purpose, the reviewer believes he does not effectively argue for its objective existence or necessity for social scientific research.

The book's second section addresses alternative perspectives on personhood, including radical social constructionism and network structuralism. Smith critiques these theories for potentially de-centering the self. The reviewer notes that Smith's view on social structure is intriguing, offering explanations for change and stability through interlocking material, embodied, cultural, social, cognitive, and historical processes.

The moral implications of Smith's position are highlighted, particularly his concept of "dignity" as an emergent quality of worth in another human being. This concept allows personhood status to be maintained even if some qualities fail, such as in cases of dementia or human embryos. The reviewer anticipates disagreement on this moral and philosophical stance, questioning how dignity differs from empathy and noting that the model places human personhood and dignity at conception, inviting debate.

Despite these critiques, the reviewer believes "What is a Person?" will inspire rigorous debate on emerging movements of critical realism and personalism within the social sciences.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

This issue of the Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion focuses on book reviews, covering a range of topics within the scientific study of religion. The reviewed books address the intersection of religion with politics, social stratification, intergroup relations, history, violence, and the philosophical concept of personhood. The journal appears to maintain a rigorous academic standard, with reviewers critically engaging with the theoretical frameworks, methodologies, and conclusions of the books reviewed. The editorial stance seems to favor in-depth scholarly analysis and debate, encouraging further research and discussion within the field.

This document consists of pages 432-435 from the "JOURNAL FOR THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF RELIGION." It contains book reviews, with a primary focus on two distinct works: one examining paranormal beliefs in American society and another, "God's Battalions: The Case for the Crusades" by Rodney Stark.

Review of Book on Paranormal Beliefs

The first review discusses a book that utilized data from a U.S. national survey (the Baylor Religion Survey) to investigate paranormal beliefs and practices. The findings indicate that paranormal beliefs are common in American society. Of nine beliefs surveyed (Atlantis, ghosts, psychic powers, fortune telling, astrology, communication with the dead, haunted houses, UFOs, and monsters like Big Foot), only 32 percent of the population believed in none, while 35 percent believed in at least three. The authors suggest that individuals with greater stakes in conformity (indicated by education and income) tend to believe in fewer paranormal items, opting instead for conventional beliefs and practices, including traditional religious belief.

The review highlights that true believers in paranormal phenomena may differ significantly from casual believers. The book provides evidence that marginalized people tend to gravitate towards paranormal beliefs that offer a greater sense of control, such as astrology and psychic powers, as well as beliefs in ghosts. Conversely, beliefs and experiences like UFO sightings are more prevalent among the better educated and more affluent.

An interesting discovery noted is the curvilinear relationship between church attendance and paranormal belief: infrequent attendees are more prone to such beliefs than either frequent or nonattendees. The review also touches upon the diverse grouping of topics covered, including the views of glossolalia-speaking Pentecostals on astrology and Sasquatch hunters' skepticism towards UFO abductees. The book reportedly covers topics such as Satanic rituals and speaking in tongues among conservative Protestants and Pentecostals, though the reviewer questions their relevance to a book on the paranormal.

Review of "God's Battalions: The Case for the Crusades" by Rodney Stark

The second, more extensive review focuses on Rodney Stark's book, "God's Battalions: The Case for the Crusades." The reviewer notes that Stark, a sociologist of religion, counters the "prevailing wisdom" that the Crusades were waged against the Islamic East for treasure and colonies. Stark's explicit thesis is that "The Crusades were precipitated by Islamic provocations: by centuries of bloody attempts to colonize the West and by sudden new attacks on Christian pilgrims and holy places" (p. 8).

Stark supports his claim by drawing on existing historical conclusions, aiming to make his argument accessible to a general audience. The review acknowledges Stark's intention but suggests the book falls short of making a significant theoretical contribution to comparative-historical sociology or the sociology of religion. The book presents the Crusades as a response to threats that persisted over centuries, beginning with the rise of Islam, which united Arab tribes and expanded into the Middle East, North Africa, and the Iberian Peninsula.

Stark details the military might of Christendom, including advancements in agriculture and technology that supported military expeditions. He argues against the notion of the "Dark Ages," asserting that Christian Europe technologically advanced while the Muslim world retrogressed. The review points out a tension in Stark's work between the material forces of the Crusades and the religious ideas that inspired them, suggesting that while religion was a factor, the Crusades also appear as a phase in the general defense of Western civilization against Muslim encroachments.

The reviewer notes that Stark's rational-choice theory of religion, a hallmark of his earlier work, is not explicitly stated but can be inferred from his analysis of the calculation of costs and benefits in human action. This is illustrated by the situation of Richard the Lionhearted during the Third Crusade, where the costs of defending Jerusalem outweighed the benefits. The review also mentions Stark's consideration of how the prohibitively high costs of crusading, coupled with factors like the death of King Louis IX, contributed to the end of the Crusades.

While acknowledging that Stark makes a convincing case that the Crusades were responses to Islamic provocations, the reviewer finds the book disappointing for sociologists seeking broader explanations. The book is described as a lucid history for a lay audience, but it can offer more for readers willing to delve deeper into Stark's text and question his arguments, particularly regarding the balance between material and ideal forces and the role of religion in conflicts.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The journal appears to focus on the scientific and sociological study of religion, including its intersection with paranormal beliefs and historical events like the Crusades. The reviews suggest an editorial stance that values empirical data and sociological analysis, while also engaging with historical interpretations. There is an underlying theme of questioning conventional wisdom and exploring complex phenomena through rigorous study, whether it be the prevalence of paranormal beliefs or the motivations behind historical military campaigns.