2009 00 00 Sociology of Religion - Vol 70 No 1 - Mencken

Magazine Overview

This document is an academic article titled "Round Trip to Hell in a Flying Saucer: The Relationship between Conventional Christian and Paranormal Beliefs in the United States*" published in "Sociology of Religion Advance Access" on April 15, 2009. It is part of "Sociology of Religion 2009, 00:01-24" and has a DOI of 10.1093/socrel/srp013. The authors are F. Carson Mencken, Christopher D. Bader, and Ye Jung Kim from Baylor University. The article explores the connection between conventional Christian beliefs and paranormal beliefs within the United States.

Abstract and Introduction

The paper examines the relationship between conventional Christian beliefs (belief in Heaven, Hell, God) and paranormal beliefs (belief in UFOs, astrology, haunting, communication with the dead, Bigfoot). Using data from the 2005 Baylor Religion Survey, a national random sample collected by the Gallup Organization, the study employs factor analysis and regression analysis. The findings indicate two distinct spheres of supernatural beliefs: one conventional Christian and one paranormal. A net positive relationship is found between these two clusters. The study also tests the compatibility hypothesis, revealing that church attendance and religious tradition moderate the effects of conventional Christian beliefs on paranormal beliefs. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications for theory and research.

The introduction notes the historical context of UFO sightings in the late 1940s and the emergence of UFO contactees in the U.S. religious marketplace. It highlights that many contactee stories incorporated Christian themes, with some even suggesting Jesus was a spaceman. The core question posed is whether these different types of beliefs are compatible and if belief in one precludes belief in the other.

Conventional Christian Versus Paranormal Beliefs

The literature on the relationship between Christian supernatural beliefs and paranormal beliefs is described as noncohesive. Researchers use terms like "New Age," "paranormal," "occult," and "supernatural" to refer to beliefs in UFOs, ghosts, ESP, and telepathy. The paper clarifies its use of "conventional Christian" and "paranormal" beliefs. It posits that all supernatural beliefs, regardless of their nature, are resistant to scientific proof and rely on individual faith. However, conventional Christian beliefs benefit from widespread cultural acceptance in the United States, a majority Christian nation. Beliefs outside this mainstream, such as in psychic phenomena, ghosts, and UFOs, are considered "paranormal."

The study draws upon two main theories: the deviance/marginalization hypothesis and the small step hypothesis.

Deviance/Marginalization Hypothesis

This hypothesis, rooted in Hirschi's (1969) social bond theory, suggests that a strong stake in conformity inhibits deviant behavior and beliefs. In a religious context, conventional Christian beliefs represent a stake in conformity. Conversely, deprivation/marginalization theory suggests that individuals deprived of power are more likely to reject conventional belief systems and embrace alternatives. Those who hold strong conventional Christian beliefs are expected to find paranormal beliefs risky and unattractive, leading to a negative relationship between the two. This is supported by arguments that conventional Christian denominations discourage participation in the supernatural and occult.

The Small Step Hypothesis

This competing hypothesis proposes a positive relationship between conventional Christian and paranormal beliefs. It argues that both types of beliefs share a spiritual orientation, reject materialism, and are at odds with conventional scientific thinking. Both emphasize spiritualism over a purely material existence. The hypothesis suggests that individuals who hold one set of supernatural beliefs may be drawn to others because they share a common orientation toward spiritualism. New Age belief systems, for instance, draw from various religious traditions, including Judeo-Christian ones. The idea is that "one kind of supernatural belief reinforces another," making it a "small step to move from believing in the devil and angels to believing in ghosts and aliens."

Empirical Evidence

The empirical evidence regarding the relationship between Christian and paranormal beliefs is inconclusive. Some studies (Wuthnow, Hess, Stark & Bainbridge, Sjodin, Krull & McKibben) suggest a negative or independent relationship, with traditional religious beliefs decreasing tendencies toward paranormal beliefs. Other studies (Orenstein, Rudski, Goode) indicate a strong positive relationship, suggesting that greater traditional religiosity is associated with greater paranormal beliefs. Some research also points to nonlinear effects, where paranormal beliefs are strongest among those with no Christian beliefs and those with the strongest Christian beliefs, but weak among those with moderate Christian beliefs.

Compatibility Hypothesis

This hypothesis proposes that inconsistencies in findings can be reconciled by examining interactions between Christian beliefs and religiosity. It suggests that the compatibility of beliefs influences the relationship. If beliefs are compatible, a positive relationship is expected; if incompatible, a negative relationship. Religiosity measures like church attendance, Biblical literalism, and evangelical Protestant affiliation are expected to moderate these effects. The paper draws on Iannaccone's (1992, 1995, 1998) work on rational choice in religion, suggesting individuals "hedge" by diversifying their religious portfolios to minimize risk. High tension between religious collectives and secular culture is expected to lead to lower compatibility between conventional Christian and paranormal beliefs.

Data and Methods

The study utilizes data from the first wave (2005) of the Baylor Religion Survey (BRS), developed by the Department of Sociology and the Institute for the Study of Religion at Baylor University. The BRS, administered by the Gallup Organization using a mixed-mode method, had a final sample size of 1,721. The analysis is divided into two sections: first, a principal components factor analysis on conventional Christian and paranormal belief items to determine if distinct sets of supernatural beliefs exist and how they are related; second, a regression analysis using demographic measures, religiosity indicators, and an index of conventional Christian beliefs to predict paranormal beliefs.

Demographic Variables

Empirical findings related to deprivation/marginalization theory suggest that socioeconomic status (education, income) negatively affects supernatural beliefs. However, some theories propose that the "New Age" appeals to elites, and higher education might lead to rejection of traditional religious ideas. The study controls for education and income. Demographic variables considered include age, gender, marital status (divorced/not divorced), employment status, education level, income level, and region (Western state).

Religiosity Measures

Previous research highlights the role of church attendance in inhibiting beliefs contrary to church teachings. Consistent church attendance leads to greater exposure to doctrines that may be at odds with supernatural beliefs. The study uses three religiosity measures: church attendance frequency, religious tradition (using Steensland et al.'s RELTRAD coding system, with Evangelical Protestant as the suppressed category), and Biblical literalism.

Conventional Christian and Paranormal Belief Indices

The study acknowledges the lack of sufficient measures to fully validate the Paranormal Belief Scale but agrees that paranormal beliefs cluster together. The analysis examines five conventional Christian belief items and 11 paranormal belief items using principal components analysis.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The recurring theme throughout the article is the complex and often contradictory relationship between conventional Christian beliefs and paranormal beliefs. The authors explore theoretical frameworks that attempt to explain this relationship, including deviance, marginalization, and compatibility. The study's stance appears to be analytical and empirical, aiming to reconcile conflicting findings in previous research by examining the moderating role of religiosity and religious tradition. The use of the Baylor Religion Survey suggests a focus on contemporary American society and its diverse belief systems. The article contributes to the sociology of religion by investigating how individuals navigate and integrate different forms of supernatural belief.

This issue of "Sociology of Religion" (Volume 12, Issue 11) focuses on the complex relationship between conventional Christian beliefs and paranormal beliefs, presenting findings from the 2005 Baylor Religion Survey. The issue delves into statistical analysis, including factor analysis and regression models, to explore how demographic factors, religiosity measures, and religious traditions influence these belief systems.

Key Findings and Analysis

The study identified two distinct clusters: conventional Christian beliefs and paranormal beliefs. It found that demographic factors such as education, income, age, and race play a role in paranormal belief, with higher education and income, and older age, correlating with lower paranormal belief. Females were found to be more likely to report paranormal beliefs than males.

A significant aspect of the research was the exploration of the "compatibility hypothesis," which suggests that church attendance and religious tradition moderate the relationship between conventional Christian and paranormal beliefs. The analysis indicated that while the bivariate relationship between conventional Christian and paranormal beliefs is not significant, this relationship becomes positive when controlling for other factors. Specifically, church attendance and religious tradition were found to moderate these effects.

For individuals with average or below-average church attendance, conventional Christian beliefs had a positive effect on paranormal beliefs. However, for those with above-average church attendance, the effect was negative, suggesting that regular church attendance reinforces conventional Christian beliefs and may lead to a rejection of paranormal beliefs.

The study also highlighted differences across religious traditions. Mainline Protestants and Catholics showed higher levels of paranormal beliefs, and conventional Christian beliefs had a stronger positive effect on paranormal beliefs within these groups compared to evangelical Protestants. For evangelical Protestants, conventional Christian beliefs did not show a direct effect on paranormal beliefs, with church attendance being a more significant factor.

Methodological Approach

The research employed factor analysis (varimax rotation) to identify belief clusters and ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models to test hypotheses regarding the relationship between conventional Christian beliefs, paranormal beliefs, and various demographic and religiosity measures. The data were drawn from the 2005 Baylor Religion Survey.

Implications and Future Research

The findings challenge the "marginalization/deprivation hypothesis" which predicted a negative effect between conventional Christian and paranormal beliefs. Instead, the "small step hypothesis," predicting a positive effect, found more support, suggesting that these belief systems can coexist. The "compatibility hypothesis" provided a framework to reconcile these findings, emphasizing the moderating roles of church attendance and religious tradition.

The authors suggest that further research could explore paranormal experiences and consumption, as well as the impact of different levels of religious tension and fundamentalist Christian beliefs on paranormal beliefs.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The issue consistently explores the interplay between religious belief systems and broader societal factors. It adopts a quantitative, sociological approach, using statistical data to analyze complex belief structures. The editorial stance appears to be one of objective analysis, presenting empirical findings and discussing their implications within existing sociological theories of religion and belief.

Title: Sociology of Religion
Issue: 21
Volume: 22
Date: July 14, 2014
Publisher: Oxford University Press
Country: United States
Language: English

This section of the "Sociology of Religion" journal, issue 21 of volume 22, published on July 14, 2014, focuses on the topic of "Conventional Christian and Paranormal Beliefs." The content appears to be an academic article discussing research into the correlation between religious adherence and belief in paranormal phenomena.

Conventional Christian and Paranormal Beliefs

The article begins by situating its study within the context of previous research, particularly referencing Rice's (2003) analysis of the 1998 Southern Focus Poll. The authors assert that their study advances this previous work both empirically and theoretically. Empirically, they incorporate additional religiosity measures, such as church attendance and religious tradition, which they found to be important predictors of paranormal beliefs. Theoretically, their work incorporates the concept of compatibility, along with related issues of tension, stigma, and sacrifice.

The central argument presented is that the moderating effects of church attendance and religious tradition are key in determining whether the relationship between conventional Christian and paranormal beliefs is positive or negative. The authors note that while numerous studies have examined this relationship, a conclusive answer has been elusive. They pose the question of whether beliefs associated with mainstream Christianity preclude belief in psychic phenomena and other supernatural phenomena.

Their analysis suggests that understanding this relationship hinges on focusing on the characteristics of the setting of religious consumption and how these characteristics condition the compatibility of the two sets of beliefs. The article cites research from Canada and Scotland as comparable to their study.

Supplementary Data

Supplementary Table 1 is noted as being available online at the Sociology of Religion online portal.

References

The issue includes an extensive list of references, spanning from 1955 to 2007, covering a broad spectrum of academic works relevant to the study of religion and paranormal beliefs. Key authors and works cited include:

• Adamski, George: "Inside the Space Ships" (1955) and "Flying Saucers Farewell" (1961).
• Aiken, Leona S. and West, Stephen G.: "Multiple Regression: Testing and Interpreting Interactions" (1991).
• Angelucci, Orefo: "The Secret of the Saucers" (1955).
• Bader, Christopher D., Froese, Paul, and Mencken, F. Carson: "American Piety 2005: Contents, Methods, and Selected Results from the Baylor Religion Survey" (2007).
• Bainbridge, William Sims: Numerous works on "After the New Age," Scientology, and the sociology of religion.
• Brown, Susan Love: "Baby Boomers, American Character, and the New Age: A Synthesis" (1992).
• Donahue, Michael J.: "Prevalence and Correlates of New Age Beliefs in Six Protestant Denominations" (1993).
• Durkin, John T. and Greeley, Andrew M.: "A Model of Religious Choice under Uncertainty" (1991).
• Ellison, Christopher G.: "Rational Choice Explanations of Individual Religious Behavior" (1995).
• Glendinning, Tony: "Religious Involvement, Conventional Christian, and Unconventional Nonmaterialist Belief" (2006).
• Goode, Erich: "Paranormal Beliefs: A Sociological Introduction" (2000).
• Gray, William D.: "Thinking Critically About New Age Ideas" (1991).
• Hess, David J.: "Science in the New Age: The Paranormal, Its Defenders and Debunkers, and American Culture" (1993).
• Hines, Terence: "Pseudoscience and the Paranormal: A Critical Examination of the Evidence" (1988).
• Hirschi, Travis: "Causes of Delinquency" (1969).
• Iannaccone, Laurence R.: Works on "Sacrifice and Stigma," "Risk, Rationality, and Religious Portfolios," and "An Introduction to the Economics of Religion."
• Johnson, Benton: "On Church and Sect" (1963).
• King, George: "The Day the Gods Came" (1965).
• Krull, Douglas S. and McKibben, Eric S.: "Skeptical Saints and Critical Cognition" (2006).
• Laubach, Marty: "The Social Effects of Psychism" (2004).
• Lawrence, Tony R.: "How Many Factors of Paranormal Belief are There?" (1995).
• Leslie, Desmond and Adamski, George: "Flying Saucers Have Landed" (1953).
• Lewis, James R.: "Approaches to the Study of the New Age Movement" (1992).
• MacDonald, William L.: "The Effects of Religiosity and Structural Strain on Reported Paranormal Experiences" (1995).
• McKinnon, Andrew M.: "The Religious, the Paranormal, and Church Attendance" (2003).
• Mears, Daniel P. and Ellison, Christopher G.: "Who Buys New Age Materials?" (2000).
• Melton, J. Gordon: "The Contactees: A Survey" (1995), and co-author of "New Age Encyclopedia" (1990).
• Menger, Howard: "From Outer Space to You" (1959).
• Michael, Cecil: "Round Trip to Hell in a Flying Saucer" (1971).
• Orenstein, Alan: "Religion and Paranormal Belief" (2002).
• Partridge, Christopher: "Understanding UFO Religions and Abduction Spiritualities" (2003).
• Rice, Tom W.: "Believe It or Not: Religious and Other Paranormal Beliefs in the United States" (2003).
• Rudski, Jeffrey: "What Does a “Superstitious” Person Believe?" (2003).
• Schwebel, Lisa J.: "Apparitions, Healings, and Weeping Madonnas: Christianity and the Paranormal" (2004).
• Sherkat, Darren E. and Wilson, John: "Preferences, Constraints, and Choices in Religious Markets" (1995).
• Sjodin, Ulf: "The Swedes and the Paranormal" (2002).
• Sparks, Glenn. G.: "The Relationship between Paranormal Beliefs and Religious Beliefs" (2001).
• Stark, Rodney: Works on "The Rise of Christianity," "Physiology and Faith," and co-author of numerous articles with Bainbridge and McCann on "Towards a Theory of Religion," "The Future of Religion," and "Market Forces and Catholic Commitment."
• Steensland, Brian, et al.: "The Measure of American Religion" (2000).
• Tobacyk, Jerome J. and Milford, G.: "Belief in Paranormal Phenomena: Assessment Instrument Development" (1983).
• Wuthnow, Robert: "Experimentation in American Religion" (1978).

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The recurring theme is the intersection of religious belief and paranormal belief, with a focus on sociological and empirical analysis. The editorial stance, as indicated by the content and the journal's focus, is to provide a platform for rigorous academic research into the sociology of religion, employing quantitative and qualitative methods to understand complex social phenomena. The journal appears to encourage research that critically examines the factors influencing belief systems, including the role of social structures, individual choices, and cultural contexts.