1995 02 00 Communication Research - Vol 22 No 1 - Sparks

Magazine Overview

This issue of COMMUNICATION RESEARCH, Volume 22, Number 1, published in February 1995, features the article "Media Impact on Fright Reactions and Belief in UFOs: The Potential Role of Mental Imagery" by Glenn G. Sparks, Cheri W. Sparks, and Kirsten Gray. The journal is published by Sage Publications, Inc. and is priced at $3-23.

Media Impact on Fright Reactions and Belief in UFOs: The Potential Role of Mental Imagery

The article by Sparks, Sparks, and Gray begins by noting the puzzling lack of research in mass communication concerning mental imagery, despite the fact that media content, such as television and movies, is primarily a stream of audio and visual information. The study explores the potential role of mental imagery in two distinct areas: (a) emotional responses to frightening mass media and (b) the effects of media on beliefs in UFOs. The findings suggest that individual differences in the vividness of mental imagery can play a crucial role in moderating both types of media impact.

The authors highlight that while media scholars agree on the nature of media as a stream of information, there has been little investigation into the cognitive processes, specifically mental imagery, that might mediate media effects. This neglect is contrasted with the extensive literature on mental imagery in psychology, which covers its relationship with the brain, its structural features, and its role in memory and emotional events.

A key reason suggested for the neglect of mental imagery by media effects scholars is that much of the existing research uses simplified stimuli, like line drawings, which are less complex than the varied and rapidly changing stimuli found in television and film. The article defines mental imagery following Finke (1989) and Bower (1972) as the mental invention or recreation of an experience that resembles actual perception, serving to put individuals in direct contact with sensory experiences.

The authors discuss the complexity of underlying codes and representations in long-term memory and distinguish between mental images as representations in long-term memory versus those created in short-term (working) memory. They emphasize the concept of "vividness" in mental imagery, defining it as a combination of clarity and liveliness, where more vivid images approximate actual percepts. The Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire (VVIQ) is mentioned as a common measure for assessing individual differences in imagery vividness.

The primary purpose of the paper is to explore the link between media impact and individual differences in the tendency to experience vivid imagery. Two areas were selected for this exploration: frightening mass media and paranormal beliefs. The study hypothesizes that imagery vividness might affect the impact of media stimuli in these cases, specifically concerning fear reactions to frightening media and the endorsement of beliefs in paranormal phenomena like UFOs.

Emotional Effects of Frightening Media

The article reviews existing research on emotional reactions to frightening mass media, noting that many individuals report intense fright reactions that can linger long after initial exposure. Symptoms can include sleep disturbances and flashbacks. Studies indicate that a significant percentage of adults report experiencing stress reactions, feeling nervous, or being afraid to sleep after watching scary content. The authors argue that these intense emotional reactions need further understanding.

Imagery and Lingering Fright Reactions to Mass Media

It is proposed that individual differences in mental imagery may contribute to lingering fright reactions. Individuals with high levels of vivid mental imagery might be more susceptible to negative emotions after watching frightening media. This is linked to the "law of apparent reality" (Frijda, 1988), suggesting that fright reactions are stronger when media stimuli are perceived as real. The authors propose that imagery functions similarly to perception, and vivid mental images can induce fright. Evidence suggests that vivid images can produce stronger affective responses. The article outlines three theoretical points: (a) conscious mental images affect responses like external stimuli, (b) vivid imagers have more detailed sensory information available for recall, and (c) vivid imagers have better retrieval cues for nonsensory information that can contribute to fear. Hypothesis 1 states that individuals with high vividness in mental imagery will be more likely to experience lingering fright reactions to mass media than those with low vividness.

Imagery and Media Impact on Paranormal Beliefs

The study also examines the relevance of mental imagery to media's impact on paranormal beliefs. Research in this area is scarce. One study showed that a disclaimer before a paranormal program reduced viewer endorsement of paranormal events. The article focuses on UFOs as a type of paranormal claim frequently covered by the media, often with visual simulations. Two research questions are posed: (1) Will individual differences in vivid mental imagery impact the believability viewers ascribe to UFO accounts with or without visual simulations? (2) Do visual simulations of UFOs generally make accounts more believable?

Existing theories suggest competing hypotheses. The "information retention" hypothesis suggests that viewers high in vivid imagery might retain visual UFO images more easily, making them more percept-like and thus more influential on judgment. The "image construction" hypothesis suggests that high imagers might be better at visualizing missing information and filling in gaps, particularly when visual simulations are absent.

The study's research question is: Will the presence or absence of UFOs in a video about UFO reports have a differential effect on UFO beliefs among high and low vivid mental imagers?

Method

Participants

The study involved 63 female volunteers enrolled in an introductory communication class at a large midwestern university, who participated to fulfill a course research requirement.

Equipment

The television program was played on a Panasonic Omnivision, VHS-format VCR (model #PV-4114) and viewed on a Sharp, 25-in. color monitor (model #25MT17) at a distance of 5 feet.

Procedure

The study had two phases. The initial phase involved participants completing a preliminary questionnaire to collect data for Hypothesis 1 and disguise the study's purpose. This questionnaire included items about typical monthly activities and the title of a program that scared them, followed by statements about their emotional reactions to measure lingering effects. The second phase, conducted over two weeks, involved participants signing up for a laboratory session. In groups of two to five, participants were seated at desks separated by visual barriers. They signed an informed consent statement and were instructed to relax and watch the program and commercials, with interaction discouraged. Commercials were used to disguise the experiment's true purpose. Observations confirmed no interaction occurred.

Participants were randomly assigned to one of two viewing conditions. Both conditions viewed a 20-minute segment from "Unsolved Mysteries," including original commercials. One condition viewed the segment with dramatic reenactments of UFO reports, including visual effects of flying saucers and space aliens in New Mexico. The second condition viewed the identical segment, but the scenes of space aliens and flying saucers were removed, with narration unchanged. This editing involved replacing the UFO footage with other footage from the same video.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The recurring theme throughout this issue is the exploration of cognitive processes, particularly mental imagery, and their impact on how individuals perceive and are affected by media content. The journal consistently publishes research that delves into the psychological and social aspects of communication, aiming to advance the understanding of media effects and human interaction with media. The editorial stance appears to be one of rigorous academic inquiry, presenting empirical research and theoretical analyses on significant topics within the field of communication studies.

This document is an excerpt from a research paper published in "COMMUNICATION RESEARCH" in February 1995, authored by Sparks et al. The paper focuses on the role of vivid mental imagery in media effects, specifically in relation to fright responses and beliefs in paranormal phenomena like UFOs.

Methodology and Measures

The study involved participants viewing one of two versions of a video related to UFO reports: one edited version without explicit UFOs, and an unedited version with UFOs. Following the video, participants completed questionnaires designed to disguise the study's true purpose. These included questions about commercials, statements about the depicted events, and whether they had seen the episode before.

The key measures used were:

• Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire (VVIQ): A 16-item measure (Marks, 1972) to assess vivid mental imagery. It demonstrated a Cronbach's alpha of .88 in this study, with a test-retest reliability of .74 and split-half of .85 in previous studies.
• Lingering Fright Response: A measure constructed by summing responses to seven statements about unpleasant thoughts and vivid memories of scary movie scenes. It had a Cronbach's alpha of .88.
• Overall Program Believability: Assessed using three items on a 7-point scale, with a Cronbach's alpha of .79.
• Belief in Flying Saucers and Space Aliens: Measured by five items on 7-point scales, with a Cronbach's alpha of .70.

Participants were categorized as high or low vivid imagers based on their VVIQ scores (median split at 66). The study also noted that the participants were predominantly female college students, with a final sample size of 63 after exclusions.

Results

The study tested two main hypotheses:

1. Fright Responses: A significant positive correlation (r = .29, p < .05) was found between vivid imagery scores (VVIQ) and lingering fright responses, supporting the first hypothesis. This suggests that individuals with higher vivid imagery are more prone to experiencing prolonged fright reactions to media.

2. UFO Beliefs and Believability: A 2x2 ANOVA was conducted to examine the impact of imagery level (high vs. low) and video version (UFOs vs. no UFOs) on program believability and UFO beliefs.
* Overall Program Believability: A significant interaction effect (F(1, 59) = 11.92, p < .001) emerged. Participants who saw the edited video (no UFOs) found it more believable if they were high vivid imagers (M=15.47) compared to low vivid imagers (M=10.62). However, for the unedited video (with UFOs), there was no significant difference between high (M=11.11) and low (M=13.68) vivid imagers.
* Belief in Flying Saucers and Space Aliens: Another significant interaction effect (F(1, 59) = 5.18, p < .03) was observed. Among participants who saw the edited video (no UFOs), high vivid imagers (M=21.89) expressed more belief in flying saucers than low vivid imagers (M=17.06). Conversely, for the unedited video (with UFOs), there was no significant difference in belief between high (M=18.44) and low (M=19.78) vivid imagers.

These results support an "image construction" hypothesis, suggesting that vivid imagers may construct their own mental images when information is ambiguous or absent, influencing their beliefs and perceptions more than factual content alone.

Discussion

The findings suggest that individual differences in vivid mental imagery play a significant role in how people respond to media, particularly concerning emotional reactions (fright) and the formation of beliefs about paranormal events. The study highlights that the way media present information, especially paranormal claims, can be influenced by the viewer's imagery capacity. The addition of visual effects (UFOs) did not necessarily increase believability, but the discussion of such details, even without visual depiction, could enhance believability among high vivid imagers. The authors emphasize that these findings are correlational and tentative, recommending future research to explore causal relationships and to investigate the image construction process more directly. The study's limitations include its focus on a specific demographic (female college students) and the reliance on self-report measures.

Conclusion

This study provides evidence that vivid mental imagery is a relevant variable in understanding media effects, impacting both fright responses and paranormal beliefs. Future research is encouraged to build upon these findings to deepen the understanding of how mass media influence individuals, partly as a function of their mental imagery capabilities.

Appendices

• Appendix A: Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire (VVIQ): Details the 16 items and the 5-point rating scale used to measure the vividness of mental images.
• Appendix B: Items Used to Assess Lingering Fright Response: Lists the seven statements used to measure the extent of prolonged negative emotional reactions to a viewed movie.
• Appendix C: Items Used to Assess Overall Program Believability and Belief in Flying Saucers and Space Aliens: Provides the specific statements used to gauge participants' belief in the program's events and in the existence of flying saucers and space aliens.

References

A comprehensive list of 40 references is provided, covering research on mental imagery, fright responses to media, paranormal beliefs, and related psychological concepts. Notable authors include Marks, Cantor, Kosslyn, and Sparks himself.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The recurring theme is the significant influence of individual differences in mental imagery on media effects. The paper advocates for a nuanced understanding of how viewers process media content, moving beyond simple information reception to consider cognitive processes like image construction. The editorial stance appears to be one of rigorous scientific inquiry, emphasizing the need for empirical evidence, statistical analysis (correlation, ANOVA), and acknowledging the limitations of research methodologies. The journal "COMMUNICATION RESEARCH" typically publishes empirical studies on communication processes and effects.

This document is a single page, page 23, from a publication titled "Sparks et al. • Mental Imagery". The content consists entirely of a bibliography or reference list, with no articles or main body text visible. The references span from 1978 to 1987 and cover various aspects of psychology, media studies, and parapsychology.

References

The following references are listed:

• Tamborini, R., Stiff, J., & Zillmann, D. (1987). Preference for graphic horror featuring male versus female victimization. *Human Communication Research*, 13, 529-552.
• White, K. D. (1978). Salivation: The significance of imagery in its voluntary control. Unpublished manuscript, University of Queensland.
• Wilson, B. J. (1989). Desensitizing children's emotional reactions to the mass media. *Communication Research*, 16, 723-745.
• Wilson, B. J., & Cantor, J. (1985). Developmental differences in empathy with a television protagonist's fear. *Journal of Experimental Child Psychology*, 39, 284-299.
• Wilson, S. C., & Barber, T. X. (1983). The fantasy-prone personality: Implications for understanding imagery, hypnosis, and parapsychological phenomena. In A.A. Sheikh (Ed.), *Imagery: Current theory, research, and application* (pp. 340-387). New York: Wiley.
• Zillmann, D. (1980). Anatomy of suspense. In P. H. Tannenbaum, (Ed.), *The entertainment functions of television* (pp. 133-163). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
• Zillmann, D., Weaver, J. B., Mundorf, N., & Aust, C. F. (1986). Effects of an opposite-gender companion's affect to horror on distress, delight, and attraction. *Journal of Personality and Social Psychology*, 51, 586-594.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The recurring themes evident in this reference list are mental imagery, media effects (particularly horror and television), emotional responses (distress, delight, empathy), and psychological phenomena such as suspense and fantasy-proneness. The editorial stance, inferred from the selection of these references, appears to focus on the psychological and media-related aspects of imagery and its influence on human perception and emotion.