1991 03 00 Anthropology of Consciousness - Vol 2 No 1-2 - Robert E Bartholomew

Magazine Overview

This issue of "The Anthropology of Consciousness," dated March-June 1991, features "The Quest for Transcendence: An Ethnography of UFOs in America" by Robert E. Bartholomew as its lead article. The magazine is published by the Society for the Anthropology of Consciousness and edited by Joseph K. Long, with Michael Winkelman serving as Review Editor and Lisa Ann Mertz as Production Editor.

The Quest for Transcendence: An Ethnography of UFOs in America

Robert E. Bartholomew's article presents two case studies of mysterious aerial sightings in the United States over a century apart: the 1896-97 US airship craze and the 1947 flying saucer wave. Bartholomew critiques the prevailing scientific approach, which often dismisses UFO sightings as products of deviance, irrationality, or psychopathology. He argues that this ethnocentric bias, rooted in a positivist and rationalist framework, fails to recognize rationality as a cultural category and obscures the symbolic significance of UFOs.

Instead, Bartholomew advocates for a culture-as-text social anthropology approach, emphasizing the social construction of reality and the translation of unfamiliar symbol systems. He posits that contemporary interpretations of UFOs serve as a means for secular society to resurrect the power and function of omnipotent beings, akin to a modern form of myth-making and ritualism.

Introduction to the Study of UFOs

Bartholomew contrasts the anthropological tendency to study "exotic" symbol systems in other cultures with the neglect of similar phenomena within Western society, such as UFOs. He asserts that the study of these phenomena reveals more about the politics of science than about the believers themselves, highlighting that science is not value-free but influenced by the prevailing Zeitgeist and Western-biased assumptions. He argues that the dismissal of Western "pseudoscience" is an ethnocentric idiosyncrasy, as myth-making and ritualism are fundamental to all cultures.

Rationalism as a Cultural Category

The article challenges the Enlightenment view of history as a linear progression from superstition to scientific reason. Bartholomew contends that adherence to rationalism as a scientific conduct code leads to ethnocentric judgments of less technologically developed societies. He argues that contemporary Western scientific rationalists view pre-Renaissance history as replete with irrationalism, often attributing it to the mentally disturbed or masses in "dysfunctioning" societies. The West's perceived immunity to irrationalism is attributed to faith in experimental science and educated judgment. Bartholomew plans to examine behavior labeled as irrational by presenting two case studies, demonstrating how taken-for-granted beliefs about aerial technology gained legitimacy and how a common theme emerges in each episode.

The Social Reality of UFOs

While many in Western society believe UFO reports signify extraterrestrial spacecraft, Bartholomew notes the lack of objective evidence. He points out that academic UFO studies are often dominated by physical scientists who focus on physical traces and phenomena, while social scientists are urged to participate more. However, the few social science studies typically focus on the witnesses' rationality. Bartholomew's analysis will focus on the social factors leading to mass interpretations of aerial stimuli, viewing UFO phenomena as exemplary case studies in reality construction and the arbitrary nature of semiotic codes.

The United States Airship "Craze" of 1896-97

This section details the wave of airship sightings between November 1896 and May 1897. Bartholomew links this phenomenon to the late nineteenth century's fascination with invention and science fiction. The public's preoccupation with technological advancements fostered an exaggerated optimism about the imminent development of practical airships. Backyard tinkerers were celebrated, and patents for airships fueled belief in their imminent perfection. A telegram published in the Sacramento Evening Bee on November 17, 1896, claiming an entrepreneur would pilot an airship to California, coincided with the first sightings reported the next evening.

Institutionalizing and Legitimating Social Realities

Bartholomew explains how the airship's existence became reified through public institutions and authority figures, despite conflicting accounts. Approximately 3,000 sightings were reported in the months following the initial incident. Press speculations became reified, leading citizens to search for the craft. The article highlights how events and circumstances were reinterpreted within this new framework of meaning, with aerial perceptions being defined as products of technological marvels. Examples include an "explosion of an airship" in Michigan and a farmer finding an aluminum wheel attributed to an airship.

The search for the "inventor" led to speculation about eccentric, capitalist-oriented inventors. The media and authority figures reinforced the airship's plausible existence. The article notes that prior to the airship publicity, unusual aerial observations were reinterpreted as originating from the airship. The context of rapid social and technological change created a need for order and meaning, leading people to interpret aerial perceptions as technological products.

Otherworldly Encounters

This section discusses 66 documented encounters with airship occupants. These occupants were secularized, and their interactions typically involved requests for repairs or mundane items, not divine pronouncements. The airship itself represented a technological solution to an elusive problem, fulfilling a transcendent function by offering rewards for assistance. The occupants often conveyed prophecies mirroring divine revelations, but framed within a secular, technological context. Many descriptions involved beings from a secularized otherworld, such as Martians, consistent with the mechanistic stories of Jules Verne, and their technology was described in mechanistic terms.

The airship sightings occurred just before the Spanish-American War, and the airship was seen as a symbolic means of overcoming perceived American foreign policy impotence regarding Cuba. The article cites reports of airship crews claiming to be bound for Cuba to assist democratic forces or possessing anti-gravity inventions.

Flying Saucers

Following World War II, the Cold War fostered tension and a communist "hysteria." The 1947 flying saucer wave occurred within this context. While the common folk theory at the time was extraterrestrial genesis, the initial interpretation was linked to the Cold War, with Americans believing saucers were secret weapons, hoaxes, or balloons, possibly Soviet agents. The FBI investigated potential links to Soviet agents and "ghost rocket" sightings.

As flying saucers became part of accepted reality, various objects and events were reinterpreted. The article mentions a minister's 1910 sighting of "meteors" being reinterpreted as a "flaming saucer" with a hammer and sickle symbol, and the destruction of a bridge being investigated for communist sabotage due to its proximity to the Cold War context.

The Social Construction and Legitimation of Flying Saucers

Mass sightings of flying saucers are presented as a social construction of reality unique to the twentieth century, with "saucers" being a manufactured concept propagated by the media. Kenneth Arnold's 1947 sighting and his use of the word "saucers" received intense media coverage, leading to a massive wave of sightings. Despite subsequent reports, Arnold described the objects as crescent-shaped and referred to their movement as "like a saucer would if you skipped it across the water."

The article notes that the initial interpretation of flying saucers was as secret weapons, but by late 1950, the motif shifted to extraterrestrial genesis. This change was influenced by popular books and magazine articles advocating the extraterrestrial hypothesis, and the subsequent solidification of this idea in media portrayals. The primary explanation for their appearance became the need to help humans survive the dangerous atomic age.

The "Saucer" Phenomenon and Social Deviance

Individuals reporting saucer-like perceptions have often been branded as socially deviant or psychologically disturbed, based on Western stereotypes. Despite the ambiguous nature of most reports and the fallibility of eyewitness testimony, psychopathological labels persist. The popular Western cultural assumption that UFO witnesses are socially deprived or representatives of occult philosophy is challenged by Gallup poll data from 1966, 1973, and 1978, which showed a significant percentage of Americans believing UFOs were real.

The article critiques interpretations that classify UFO witnesses and believers as hysterical, irrational, or unbalanced, citing studies that have failed to substantiate these claims. It argues that these interpretations are ethnocentric, similar to the historical mislabeling of "witches."

Semiotic Interpretation

Bartholomew argues that while religion offers miracles and immortality, alien technology in UFO narratives offers the power to save earth from nuclear catastrophe and perform miraculous healing. He notes that descriptions of UFO occupants often parallel themes found in folklore, mythology, and religion, such as journeys to otherworlds and encounters with supernatural beings. He suggests that contemporary UFO narratives secularize fairy beliefs, transferring their magical powers to extraterrestrials.

He criticizes psychiatric studies that label UFO claimants as mentally ill, arguing that spontaneous altered states of consciousness are common and that cultural beliefs influence content. He points out that studies evaluating personality correlates of contact claimants versus non-claimants have found no significant differences compared to the general population.

Conclusion

The article concludes that despite the Enlightenment's emphasis on linear progression from supernatural belief to scientific reason, "irrational" thinking and a craving for the otherworldly persist, now cloaked in rationalistic thought. Instead of spiritual guardians, we encounter "magical" machines that fulfill the functional equivalent of "technological angels." The persistent proliferation of UFO realities reflects the secularized Western collective unconscious attempting to plausibly resurrect the power of its earlier gods. Bartholomew criticizes social scientists for ignoring UFOs as irrational pseudoscience, arguing that this position is indefensible given the emphasis on chronicling human diversity. He asserts that ignoring "exotic" Western realities obscures their symbolic meaning and censors the ethnographic record.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The recurring themes in this issue revolve around the anthropological study of consciousness, particularly focusing on anomalous experiences and belief systems. The lead article strongly advocates for a cultural, symbolic, and ethnographic approach to understanding phenomena like UFO sightings, challenging purely rationalist or psychopathological explanations. It emphasizes the social construction of reality and the role of cultural context in shaping interpretations of the unknown. The reviews and obituaries also touch upon related themes of shamanism, altered states of consciousness, and the study of belief systems.

The editorial stance, as represented by the lead article, is critical of the traditional social sciences' dismissal of UFO phenomena as mere pseudoscience or irrationality. It champions a more inclusive and culturally sensitive approach that acknowledges the symbolic and social significance of these beliefs, even if their objective reality is debated. The magazine appears to promote the idea that understanding these phenomena offers insights into human consciousness, myth-making, and the construction of social realities.

This issue of The Anthropology of Consciousness, Volume 2(1-2), is titled "THE QUEST FOR TRANSCENDENCE: AN ETHNOGRAPHY OF UFOS IN AMERICA". It serves as a comprehensive bibliography and overview of academic and popular literature concerning UFOs and flying saucers, primarily from the 1950s through the late 1980s.

Content

The issue is structured as an extensive list of references, categorized by author and year of publication. These references cover a wide spectrum of topics related to the UFO phenomenon, including:

• Psychological Aspects: Many entries delve into the psychological characteristics of individuals who claim UFO experiences, including studies on personality, hallucinations, and the "flying saucer syndrome." Authors like Joost A.M. Meerloo, Howard Menger, and Berthold Eric Schwarz explore these facets.
• Historical and Cultural Context: The literature examines the historical development of the UFO phenomenon, its portrayal in media, and its place within popular culture. Works by Jacques Vallee, Ronald Dean Story, and Roy Wallis are cited.
• Scientific and Skeptical Perspectives: The bibliography includes works from scientists and skeptics who have analyzed UFO reports, such as Donald Howard Menzel, Carl Sagan, and Robert Merrill Sheaffer. These entries often aim to debunk or provide rational explanations for sightings.
• Alleged Encounters and Abductions: Several references address specific types of alleged encounters, such as cattle mutilations and UFO abductions, with authors like Whitley Strieber and Whitley Sprinkle contributing to this area.
• Sociological Analysis: The sociological construction of belief in UFOs and the social impact of the phenomenon are also explored, with references to works on collective behavior and social intelligence.

Notable authors and researchers whose works are cited include:

• Donald Howard Menzel: A prominent figure who offered scientific critiques of UFO claims.
• Jacques Vallee: Known for his interdisciplinary approach to UFO research.
• Carl Sagan: A scientist who contributed to discussions and debates on UFOs.
• Whitley Strieber: Author of influential books on alien abduction experiences.
• Herman Oberth: A pioneer of rocketry who also commented on flying saucers.

The bibliography is extensive, reflecting a significant body of work dedicated to understanding the UFO phenomenon from various academic and popular viewpoints. It includes journal articles, books, dissertations, and conference proceedings.

Recurring Themes and Editorial Stance

The overarching theme of this issue is the academic and cultural exploration of the UFO phenomenon in America. It presents a broad survey of the literature, encompassing both believers and skeptics, and highlighting the multidisciplinary interest in UFOs as a subject of study. The editorial stance appears to be one of comprehensive documentation and academic inquiry, aiming to map the existing discourse on UFOs rather than promoting a specific viewpoint. The inclusion of works from diverse fields suggests an effort to understand the phenomenon from multiple perspectives, including psychological, sociological, and scientific angles.